The Evolution of Man, V.2, Ernst Haeckel [free ebook reader for pc txt] 📗

apostrophe left ventricle, v double apostrophe right ventricle, cd apostrophe right superior vena cava, ci inferior vena cava. (From Kolliker.))

If we compare the fully-developed arterial system of the various classes of Craniotes, it shows a good deal of variety, yet it always proceeds from the same fundamental type. Its development is just the same in man as in the other mammals; in particular, the modification of the six pairs of arterial arches is the same in both (Figures 2.367 to 2.370). At first there is only a single pair of arches, which lie on the inner surface of the first pair of gill-arches. Behind this there then develop a second and third pair of arches (lying on the inner side of the second and third gill-arches, Figure 2.367). Finally, we get a fourth, fifth, and sixth pair. Of the six primitive arterial arches of the Amniotes three soon pass away (the first, second, and fifth); of the remaining three, the third gives the carotids, the fourth the aortas, and the sixth (number 5 in Figures 2.364 and 2.368) the pulmonary arteries.

The human heart also develops in just the same way as that of the other mammals (Figure 2.378). We have already seen the first rudiments of its embryology, which in the main corresponds to its phylogeny (Figures 1.201 and 1.202). We saw that the palingenetic form of the heart is a spindle-shaped thickening of the gut-fibre layer in the ventral wall of the head-gut. The structure is then hollowed out, forms a simple tube, detaches from its place of origin, and henceforth lies freely in the cardiac cavity. Presently the tube bends into the shape of an S, and turns spirally on an imaginary axis in such a way that the hind part comes to lie on the dorsal surface of the fore part. The united vitelline veins open into the posterior end. From the anterior end spring the aortic arches.

(FIGURE 2.378. Heart of the adult man, fully developed, front view, natural position. a right auricle (underneath it the right ventricle), b left auricle (under it the left ventricle), C superior vena cava, V pulmonary veins, P pulmonary artery, d Botalli's duct, A aorta. (From Meyer.))

This first structure of the human heart, enclosing a very simple cavity, corresponds to the tunicate-heart, and is a reproduction of that of the Prochordonia, but it now divides into two, and subsequently into three, compartments; this reminds us for a time of the heart of the Cyclostomes and fishes. The spiral turning and bending of the heart increases, and at the same time two transverse constrictions appear, dividing it externally into three sections (Figures 2.371 and 2.372). The foremost section, which is turned towards the ventral side, and from which the aortic arches rise, reproduces the arterial bulb of the Selachii. The middle section is a simple ventricle, and the hindmost, the section turned towards the dorsal side, into which the vitelline veins inosculate, is a simple auricle (or atrium). The latter forms, like the simple atrium of the fish-heart, a pair of lateral dilatations, the auricles (Figure 2.371 b); and the constriction between the atrium and ventricle is called the auricular canal (Figure 2.372 ca). The heart of the human embryo is now a complete fish-heart.

(FIGURE 2.379. Transverse section of the back of the head of a chick-embryo, forty hours old. (From Kolliker.) m medulla oblongata, ph pharyngeal cavity (head-gut), h horny plate, h apostrophe thicker part of it, from which the auscultory pits afterwards develop, hp skin-fibre plate, hh cervical cavity (head-coelom or cardiocoel), hzp cardiac plate (the outermost mesodermic wall of the heart), connected by the ventral mesocardium (uhg) with the gut-fibre layer or visceral coelom-layer (dfp apostrophe), Ent entoderm, ihh inner (entodermic?) wall of the heart; the two endothelial cardiac tubes are still separated by the cenogenetic septum (s) of the Amniotes, g vessels.)

In perfect harmony with its phylogeny, the embryonic development of the human heart shows a gradual transition from the fish-heart, through the amphibian and reptile, to the mammal form, The most important point in the transition is the formation of a longitudinal partition--incomplete at first, but afterwards complete--which separates all three divisions of the heart into right (venous) and left (arterial) halves (cf. Figures 2.373 to 2.378). The atrium is separated into a right and left half, each of which absorbs the corresponding auricle; into the right auricle open the body-veins (upper and lower vena cava, Figures 2.375 c and 2.377 c); the left auricle receives the pulmonary veins. In the same way a superficial interventricular furrow is soon seen in the ventricle (Figure 2.376 s). This is the external sign of the internal partition by which the ventricle is divided into two--a right venous and left arterial ventricle. Finally a longitudinal partition is formed in the third section of the primitive fish-like heart, the arterial bulb, externally indicated by a longitudinal furrow (Figure 2.376 af). The cavity of the bulb is divided into two lateral halves, the pulmonary-artery bulb, that opens into the right ventricle, and the aorta-bulb, that opens into the left ventricle. When all the partitions are complete, the small (pulmonary) circulation is distinguished from the large (body) circulation; the motive centre of the former is the right half, and that of the latter the left half, of the heart.

The heart of all the Vertebrates belongs originally to the hyposoma of the head, and we accordingly find it in the embryo of man and all the other Amniotes right in front on the under-side of the head; just as in the fishes it remains permanently in front of the gullet. It afterwards descends into the trunk, with the advance in the development of the neck and breast, and at last reaches the breast, between the two lungs. At first it lies symmetrically in the middle plane of the body, so that its long axis corresponds with that of the body. In most of the mammals it remains permanently in this position. But in the apes the axis begins to be oblique, and the apex of the heart to move towards the left side. The displacement is greatest in the anthropoid apes--chimpanzee, gorilla, and orang--which resemble man in this.

As the heart of all Vertebrates is originally, in the light of phylogeny, only a local enlargement of the middle principal vein, it is in perfect accord with the biogenetic law that its first structure in the embryo is a simple spindle-shaped tube in the ventral wall of the head-gut. A thin membrane, standing vertically in the middle plane, the mesocardium, connects the ventral wall of the head-gut with the lower head-wall. As the cardiac tube extends and detaches from the gut-wall, it divides the mesocardium into an upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) plate (usually called the mesocardium anterius and posterius in man, Figure 2.379 uhg). The mesocardium divides two lateral cavities, Remak's "neck-cavities" (Figure 2.379 hh). These cavities afterwards join and form the simple pericardial cavity, and are therefore called by Kolliker the "primitive pericardial cavities."

(FIGURE 2.380. Frontal section of a human embryo, one-twelfth of an inch long in the neck, magnified forty times; "invented" by Wilhelm His. Seen from ventral side. mb mouth-fissure, surrounded by the branchial processes, ab bulbus of aorta, hm middle part of ventricle, hl left lateral part of same, ho auricle, d diaphragm, vc superior vena cava, vu umbilical vein, vo vitelline space, lb liver, lg hepatic duct.)

The double cervical cavity of the Amniotes is very interesting, both from the anatomical and the evolutionary point of view; it corresponds to a part of the hyposomites of the head of the lower Vertebrates--that part of the ventral coelom-pouches which comes next to Van Wijhe's "visceral cavities" below. Each of the cavities still communicates freely behind with the two coelom-pouches of the trunk; and, just as these afterwards coalesce into a simple body-cavity (the ventral mesentery disappearing), we find the same thing happening in the head. This simple primary pericardial cavity has been well called by Gegenbaur the "head-coeloma," and by Hertwig the "pericardial breast-cavity." As it now encloses the heart, it may also be called cardiocoel.

The cardiocoel, or head-coelom, is often disproportionately large in the Amniotes, the simple cardiac tube growing considerably and lying in several folds. This causes the ventral wall of the amniote embryo, between the head and the navel, to be pushed outwards as in rupture (cf. Figure 1.180 h). A transverse fold of the ventral wall, which receives all the vein-trunks that open into the heart, grows up from below between the pericardium and the stomach, and forms a transverse partition, which is the first structure of the primary diaphragm (Figure 2.380 d). This important muscular partition, which completely separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities in the mammals alone, is still very imperfect here; the two cavities still communicate for a time by two narrow canals. These canals, which belong to the dorsal part of the head-coelom, and which we may call briefly pleural ducts, receive the two pulmonary sacs, which develop from the hind end of the ventral wall of the head-gut; they thus become the two pleural cavities.

The diaphragm makes its first appearance in the class of the Amphibia (in the salamanders) as an insignificant muscular transverse fold of the ventral wall, which rises from the fore end of the transverse abdominal muscle, and grows between the pericardium and the liver. In the reptiles (tortoises and crocodiles) a later dorsal part is joined to this earlier ventral part of the rudimentary diaphragm, a pair of subvertebral muscles rising from the vertebral column and being added as "columns" to the transverse partition. But it was probably in the Permian sauro-mammals that the two originally separate parts were united, and the diaphragm became a complete partition between the thoracic and abdominal cavities in the mammals; as it considerably enlarges the chest-cavity when it contracts, it becomes an important respiratory muscle. The ontogeny of the diaphragm in man and the other mammals reproduces this phylogenetic process to-day, in accordance with the biogenetic law; in all the mammals the diaphragm is formed by the secondary conjunction of the two originally separate structures, the earlier ventral part and the later dorsal part.

Sometimes the blending of the two diaphragmatic structures, and consequently the severance of the one pleural duct from the abdominal cavity, is not completed in man. This leads to a diaphragmatic rupture (hernia diaphragmatica). The two cavities then remain in communication by an open pleural duct, and loops of the intestine may penetrate by this "rupture opening" into the chest-cavity. This is one of those fatal mis-growths that show the great part that blind chance has in organic development.

(FIGURE 2.381. Transverse section of the head of a chick-embryo, thirty-six hours old. Underneath the medullary tube the two primitive aortas (pa) can be seen in the head-plates (s) at each side of the chorda. Underneath the gullet (d) we see the aorta-end of the heart (ae), hh cervical cavity or head coelom, hk top of heart, ks head-sheath, amniotic fold, h horny plate. (From Remak.)

(FIGURE 2.382. Transverse section of the cardiac region of the same chick-embryo (behind the preceding). In the cervical cavity (hh) the heart (h) is still connected by a mesocard (hg) with the gut-fibre layer (pf). d gut-gland layer, up provertebral plates, jb rudimentary auditory vesicle in the horny plate, hp first rise of the amniotic fold. (From Remak.))

Thus the thoracic cavity of the mammals, with its important contents, the heart and lungs, belongs originally to the HEAD-PART of the vertebrate body, and its inclusion in the trunk is secondary. This instructive and very interesting fact is entirely proved by the concordant evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny. The lungs are outgrowths of the head-gut; the heart develops from its inner wall. The pleural sacs that enclose the lungs are dorsal parts of the head-coelom, originating from the pleuroducts; the pericardium in which the heart afterwards lies is also double originally, being formed from ventral halves of the