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of total sample (Table 4).

Table – 4 : Details of Land holdings

Villages

Class

Total

%

Marginal Farmer

Small farmer

Medium Farmer

Large Farmer

 

 

Village 1

21

22

6

1

50

25%

Village 2

14

23

12

1

50

25%

Village 3

21

19

9

1

50

25%

Village 4

19

17

11

3

50

25%

Total

75

81

38

6

200

100%

Source: Primary data.

As can be seen from the Table, marginal and small farmers constitute more than 75% of total sample. Analysis of the average land holding findings are given in Table 4

Table- 5 : Average Land holdings Class wise

Class

Mean Land Owned (in acres)

Marginal Farmer

1.8

Small Farmer

3.4

Medium Farmer

7.2

Large Farmer

12.2

Total

24.6

Source: Primary data.

It emerges clear that the land holding of marginal farmer is 1.8 acres while that of large farmers own land of 12 acres. This difference has significant impact on livelihood as for marginal farmers other sources of income other than farm income is essential.

Details pertaining to the number of buffaloes was collected and compared with before and after the construction of road. Details are given in Table 5

As shown in the Table 1, the sample size in all the villages is 50. However, representation of gender varies from village to village with Village 1 having highest number of feminine gender (N=21), while the Village 4 has lowest representation of feminine gender (N=10)

MAJOR FINDINGS:

Marginal and small farmers are dominated in the rural sample households of farming community having the average land holding of 1.5 acres and 379 acres respectively in the study area. The main crops grown are cereal crops vegetable crops and commercial crops.

Among the social groups, General followed by SC/STs and OBC caste groups are living in the study area. The average family is 4.68%.

Majority of the sample households contacted have semi-pucca houses. The general income and the type of houses have direct relationship. Almost all the sample households are electrified.

Educational level reveals that it is better among the higher landholding size and just opposite in the case of agricultural laborers and few non-land based activities.

As part of agricultural activities the income generation from livestock supplements is the additional source of income to the farming community.

Respondents are of the opinion in the developed taluk where village link road and transportation reveals higher education for the children in general and female in particular. It is observed reverse trend in moderate/backward taluk.

Construction of village link road and improved transport system has direct bearing on the income generation. Life style in promoting rural transformation at the household level is evident in the study area.

It is clear that the better rural roads together with well knitted transportation system both public and private transport facilities for marketing agricultural produces and products related to non-land based activities across the social groups. The middle men or brokerage role has been drastically reduced.

Average road lengths per 100 sq/kms of area comes to 64 kms and 272 kms road length per one lakh population are above the national average of 61.3 kms and 239 kms respectively.

It can be seen that number of villages which have all weather roads are almost doubled in the post economic reform period. Number of villages which had Kutch roads has drastically reduced over the years.

By and large the respondents were using bullock carts in the past as mode of transport shifted to bullock cart to two/three/four wheelers. It is evident that lot of transformation taking place even in rural areas.

CONCLUSION

The need for rural roads for the rural economy in the third world particularly in India tends to have a crucial place in the process of socio-economic-cultural transformation for the rural masses. In the emerging scenario, the need for rural roads gets prioritized due to the availability of very limited resources further the How of rural people to semi-urban and urban areas remains to be very high due to the higher population growth rate on the one hand and absorption of the surplus rural labour force in the vicinity of the cross section rural sectors. The continued alleles of all these phenomena envisage a serious risk of imbalance in countries like India. A concerted effort on planning the rural roads is therefore essential to anticipate and avoid these risks.

It is very clear from the study “IMPACT OF RURAL ROADS ON RURAL ECONOMY” depicts that the rural roads has played a major role in beginning change in the socio- Economic life of the people in the case study area in Kolar district the present study clearly proved of the overall economic activities of the people in regard and allied activates have taken a positive upward mobility even at the Micro – Economic activities when the economic activities compared with pre-and post-construction of Rural Roads.

REFERENCES

Bhanari, Sukla. (1992): Transport and Regional Development, Concept Publications, Delhi

Ciandhi. P. J. and Gandhi. (1990-91): Indian Transport System Mittal Publications, Delhi.

Das & Ram. (1994):Third World and Its Socio-Economic Participation Twenty-first Century Publication, New Delhi

Desponded. R. A. (1980):Development of Rural Roads in IndiaIndian Highways, Vol.1, January 1980.

Lal Monhar. (1989): Rural Road and Economic development, Amar Prakashan New Delhi.

Khare. L. P. (1985): Rural Roads in India, Roads Transport in Rural Area, New Delhi.

Manahan. (1989): Rural Roads and Socio-Economic Development, Aman Prakashan, New Delhi.

Sharma. R. K. (1994): Rural Development in India, Radha Publications, New Delhi.

Farrooque .A .K .M(1977): Road and communication in Mughal India, Idrhi –I, Adbiyat New Delhi.

Tripathi. P. C. (1972): Rural Transport and Economic Development, Sultan Chand and Sons Publishers, Delhi.

Annual Reports of the Ministry of Transport and Communication, Government of India, 1951-1996.

Karnataka at a Glance, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Karnataka, Various Issues 1990, 2000, and 2009.

Karnataka State Gazetteer, Kolar District, 1993.

 

EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN KADAMBA PERIOD - A Feministic Approach

Dr. SANTHOSH KUMAR T.S

Assistant Professor, Department of History, Govt College for Women, Mandya. Karnataka State

A study of Kadambas is a subject to a fascinating subject to a student of history. The present paper throws a light on the empowerment of women in the period of kadambas. Within this limited arena I would like to discuss the awareness of women about their predicament in their male-dominated society. Because the condition of the women of ancient time was not in good and ideal condition. They were away from the hint of knowledge for their own liberation from the clutches of patriarchal construct. They did not know the the concept of feminism in full length, moreover the world feminism and empowerment are the recent phenomena.

Feminism affirms women and their contribution to the full public life and anticipates a future where there barriers of age will be removed. Feminism has many agendas, political agenda, philosophical position ideologies, values and socio-political movements designed to enable women to participate in public as full citizens. The women have been marginalized and subjugated by the double standard of laws, culture, religion, customs and by the society. Cultural construct of women in the patriarchal society is very pathetic. Women are victimized in personality-politics by the patriarchy. In this contention to through light on the women of ancient history stands as an important method to compare and see the women of kadamba period who they were ignorant of the present day women’s demand for their rightful claim equal to men of the same time. After math of the Second World War the Euro-centric values spread in fusion with religion and cultural construct reaches far and wide. With the arrival of feminism in 1960 and subsequently, Gender-studies, in the tone of realization of women oppression, marginality and subjugation that have been rooted for centuries have been reviewed and up-rooted .The women have realized their exploitation and family politics , and become self-reliant, and carving their own new shapes in society. The women raised their voice in words against injustice and gender inequality.

I am making a sincere effort to present the Picture of women community in the ancient dynasty of kadambas of Karnataka state. As we know kadambas are the prominent rulers in the history of Karnataka. An attempt is made in this paper to explain the conditions and the strategies used by Kadamba rulers to welfare of women community. The empowerment of women itself includes the empowerment of an individual. In the period of Kadambas the queens of the dynasty stand as a symbol of ‘empowered women’ of the same dynasty. They were supporting the kings in their administration and they were the in charge rulers of the particular provinces. For instance we can quote the example of Hangal kadamba king Mayura verma’s wife, Akkadevi who was looking after Kiskud-70.Thogare-60 and Masavadi-140. The queens of the day were generously involving in the charitable works such as constructing education centers, temples, and other public works to help the common folks. But the common women of the same period were exempted from this kind of liberty and choice to work outside their homes. Somewhat liberty was given to Devadasis or Temple dancers. The privileged women communities were the women of the royal family and of the upper classes. Here itself my paper makes an attempt to bring forth the conditions of women and their places in society.

In ancient Karnataka, the wife and daughter-in-law were considered to occupy an important and honorable place in the family. Women of the upper classes and ruling classes and of the families of officials are received education. The education mainly consisted of the fine arts as music and dance, in addition to general education. Some of them were exponents in the field of their learning. Women of the royal families were entrusted with the work of administration. Among the women of the common people, the Davadasis specialized in singing and dancing. They sang delighting songs with clear modulations of the seven notes. The dancing was not restricted to the class of courtesans but was regarded as one of the fine arts and accomplishments in which all classes of people participated.

There is no evidence in the records of child marriages. The girls were married only when they became youths. Jayakesi the son-in-law of the Chalukya Vikramaditya VI had attained marriageable age at the time of his marriage. Generally boys were married when they were 15-20 years and girls were married between 12-16 years. It appears that the young peoples were left free to select their own match. The event that has greater interest for for the history of the period in the fact narrated by the daughter of Jayakesi I, the Kadamba King of Goa,fell in love with the handsome king Karna Raja and went to the latter’s carotidal to marry him. The instance shows that love marriages not uncommon. During this period inter caste marriages as not in vogue.

The dowry systems were not in vogue during this period. After the marriage, the bridegroom used to be honored by presents. The King Mummuri period V lakhs of gold coins to the Kadamba prince Chattayyadeve, only after the marriage Chattayadeva’s son Jayakeshi gave unlimited presentations to his son-in-law Permadideva. According to Manu Polygamy was Permissible. King and Prince continued the practice of having more than one wife. The terms “savati gandhavarance”, Savatimada bhanjane are indicative of the Jealousy that existed among the queens.

Collection of a marriage was in vogue. This was more or less an arrangement made by the people of the locality or village. The money collected thus was usually given away given as a gift to the tank or temple of the place. Instances of the people paying this ta have been cited in some of the records of the period. The people believed that extend monetary help to poor people and Brahmans for the purposes of marriage was an act of merit. The matrimonial bondage could only be separated by loath, as the husband and the wife had no divorce. Through the husband was permitted to marry gain during the life time or the first life. The wife was not provided with any kind of remedy.

The very large number of Sati