A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition), Calvin Cutter [adventure books to read txt] 📗
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463. What fluids are conveyed into the right cavities of the heart? What is necessary before they can be adapted to the wants of the body? By what organs are these changes effected? 464–474. Give the anatomy of the respiratory organs. 464. Name the respiratory organs. What organs also aid in the respiratory process? 465. Describe the lungs.
Fig. 89.
Fig. 89. A back view of the heart and lungs. The posterior walls of the chest are removed. 1, 2, 3, The upper, middle, and lower lobes of the right lung. 8, 9, 10, The two lobes of the left lung. 6, 13, The diaphragm. 7, 7, 14, 14, The pleura that lines the ribs. 4, 11, The pleura that lines the mediastine. 5, 12, 12, The portion of the pleura that covers the diaphragm. 15, The trachea, 16, The larynx. 19, 19, The right and left bronchia. 20, The heart. 29, The lower part of the spinal column.
Explain fig. 89.
211466. Each lung is enclosed, and its structure maintained by a serous membrane, called the pleu´ra, which invests it as far as the root, and is thence reflected upon the walls of the chest. The lungs, however, are on the outside of the pleura, in the same way as the head is on the outside of a cap doubled upon itself. The reflected pleuræ in the middle of the thorax form a partition, which divides the chest into two cavities. This partition is called the me-di-as-ti´num.
Fig. 90.
Fig. 90. The heart and lungs removed from the chest, and the lungs freed from all other attachments. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The superior vena cava. 3, The inferior vena cava. 4, The right ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery issuing from it. a, a, The pulmonary artery, (right and left,) entering the lungs. b, b, Bronchia, or air-tubes, entering the lungs. v, v, Pulmonary veins, issuing from the lungs. 6, The left auricle. 7, The left ventricle. 8, The aorta. 9, The upper lobe of the left lung. 10, Its lower lobe. 11, The upper lobe of the right lung. 12, The middle lobe. 13, The lower lobe.
Observation. When this membrane that covers the lungs, 212 and also lines the chest, is inflamed, the disease is called “pleurisy.”
466. By what are the lungs enclosed? What is the relative position of the lungs and pleura? What is said of the reflected pleuræ? Explain fig. 90. What part of the lungs is affected in pleurisy?
467. The lungs are composed of the ramifications of the bronchial tubes, which terminate in the bronchial cells, (air-cells,) lymphatics, and the divisions of the pulmonary artery and veins. All of these are connected by cellular tissue, which constitutes the pa-ren´chy-ma. Each lung is retained in its place by its root, which is formed by the pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, and bronchial tubes, together with the bronchial vessels and pulmonary nerves.
468. The TRACHEA extends from the larynx, of which it is a continuation, to the third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into two parts, called bronchia. It lies anterior to the spinal column, from which it is separated by the œsophagus.
469. The BRONCHIA proceed from the bifurcation, or division of the trachea, to their corresponding lungs. Upon entering the lungs, they divide into two branches, and each branch divides and subdivides, and ultimately terminates in small sacs, or cells, of various sizes, from the twentieth to the hundredth of an inch in diameter. So numerous are these bronchial or air-cells, that the aggregate extent of their lining membrane in man has been computed to exceed a surface of 20,000 square inches, and Munro states that it is thirty times the surface of the human body.
Illustration. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of a tree; the bronchia, to two large branches; the subdivisions of the bronchia, to the branchlets and twigs; the air-cells, to the buds seen on the twigs in the spring.
470. The AIR-VESICLES and small bronchial tubes compose 213 the largest portions of the lungs. These, when once inflated, contain air, under all circumstances, which renders their specific gravity much less than water; hence the vulgar term, lights, for these organs. The trachea and bronchial tubes are lined by mucous membrane. The structure of this membrane is such, that it will bear the presence of pure air without detriment, but not of other substances.
467. Of what are the lungs composed? How retained in place? 468. Where is the trachea situated? 469. Describe the bronchia. What is the aggregate extent of the lining membrane of the air-cells? To what may the trachea and its branches be compared? 470. What is said of the air-cells and bronchial tubes?
Fig. 91.
Fig. 91. A representation of the larynx, trachea, bronchia, and air-cells. 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, The larynx 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchial tube. 6, The left bronchial tube. 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, The subdivisions of the right and left bronchial tubes. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells.
What membrane lines the trachea and its branches? What is peculiar in its structure? What does fig. 91 represent?
214Observation. The structure of the trachea and lungs may be illustrated, by taking these parts of a calf or sheep and inflating the air-vesicles by forcing air into the windpipe with a pipe or quill. The internal structure may then be seen by opening the different parts.
471. The lungs, like other portions of the system, are supplied with nutrient arteries and nerves. The nervous filaments that are distributed to these organs are in part from the tenth pair, (par vagum,) that originates in the brain, and in part from the sympathetic nerve. The muscles that elevate the ribs and the diaphragm receive nervous fibres from a separate system, which is called the respiratory.
Fig. 92.
Fig. 92. 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-vesicles. Both the tube and vesicles are much magnified. 3, A bronchial tube and vesicles laid open.
Observation. When the mucous membrane of a few of the larger branches of the windpipe is slightly inflamed, it is called a “cold;” when the inflammation is greater, and extends to the lesser air-tubes, it is called bronch-i´tis. When the air-cells and parenchyma become inflamed, it is called inflammation of the lungs. Coughing is a violent expulsory effort by which air is suddenly forced through the bronchia and trachea to remove offending matter.
How may the structure of the trachea and its branches be illustrated? 471. Are the lungs supplied with nutrient arteries? Where are the respiratory nerves distributed? From what source do these organs derive their nervous filaments?
215472. The RIBS are joined to the spinal column at their posterior extremity; and in front, they terminate in cartilages, which unite them to the sternum. They incline downward, from the spinal column to the breast-bone, and form resisting walls that assist in producing the partial vacuum necessary for inspiration.
Fig. 93.
Fig. 94.
Fig. 93. A section of the chest when the lungs are inflated. 1, The diaphragm. 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen.
Fig. 94. A section of the chest when the lungs are contracted. 1, The diaphragm in common expiration. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 3, The position of the diaphragm in forced expiration.
These engravings show the diaphragm to be more convex, and the walls of the abdomen more flattened, when the lungs are collapsed, than when they are inflated.
473. The DIAPHRAGM is a flexible circular partition, that separates the respiratory from the digestive organs, and the chest from the abdomen. Its margin is attached to the spinal column, the sternum, and cartilages of the lower ribs. The lungs rest upon its upper surface, while the liver and stomach 216 are placed below it, (fig. 88.) In a state of repose, its upper surface forms an arch, the convexity of which is toward the chest. In forced expiration, its upper point reaches as high as the fourth rib. In an ordinary inspiration, it is depressed as low as the seventh rib, which increases the capacity of the chest.
472. Describe the ribs. Explain figs. 93 and 94. 473. Describe the diaphragm.
474. The RESPIRATORY muscles are, in general, attached at one extremity to the parts about the shoulders, head, and upper portion of the spinal column. From these, they run downward and forward, and are attached, at the opposite extremity, to the sternum, clavicle, and upper rib. Other muscles are attached at one extremity to a rib above, and by the opposite extremity to a rib below. These fill the spaces between the ribs, and, from their situation, are called in-ter-cost´al muscles.
Observation. 1st. There are several actions of common occurrence, that are intimately connected with respiration; such as hiccough, sneezing, &c. Hiccough is an involuntary contraction of the muscles of respiration, particularly the diaphragm.
2d. Sneezing is a violent, involuntary contraction of the respiratory muscles, as in hiccough. When an acrid stimulant, as snuff, is applied to the mucous membrane of the nose, an irritation is produced which is accompanied by a violent expulsion of air from the lungs. This is owing to the connection between the nasal and respiratory nerves.
What is its form when not in action? 474. Where do the respiratory muscles make their attachment? What name is given to those muscles that fill the places between the ribs? What is hiccough? What is sneezing?
475. Respiration, or breathing, is that process by which air is taken into the lungs and expelled from them. The object of respiration is, 1st. To supply the system with oxygen, which is essential to the generation of animal heat; 2d. To convert the chyle into blood. This is done by the oxygen of the inspired air; 3d. To relieve the organs of the body of the principal elements (carbon and hydrogen) that compose the old and useless particles of matter. The organs of the system, as already mentioned, are principally composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
476. By the action of the lymphatics and capillary veins, the old and worn-out particles are conveyed into the veins of the systemic circulation. The hydrogen, in form of watery vapor, is easily discharged in the perspiration and other secretions. The nitrogen and oxygen are, or may be, separated from the blood, through the agency of several different organs; but carbon does not escape so readily. It is probable that a part of the surplus carbon of the venous blood is secreted by the liver; but a far greater amount passes to the lungs, and these may be considered as special organs designed to separate this element from the venous blood.
477. An ordinary inspiration may be accomplished by the action of the diaphragm, and a slight elevation of the ribs. In 218 full inspiration, the diaphragm is not only more depressed but the ribs are evidently elevated. To produce this effect on the ribs, two sets of muscles are called into action. Those which are attached to the upper rib, sternum, and clavicle, contract and elevate the lower and free extremities of the ribs. This enlarges the cavity of the chest between the spinal column and the
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