Roumania Past and Present, James Samuelson [best novels to read to improve english .txt] 📗

OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE (A.D. 1601) TO THE DEPOSITION OF PRINCE COUZA (A.D. 1866).

Turkish exactions after Michael's fall--Transition from native to
Greek Voivodes--Matthew Bassarab (Wallachia) and Basilius Lupus
(Moldavia)--Their severe criminal codes--Serban II.
(Cantacuzene)--His good deeds--Betrays the Turks before
Vienna--Growing power of Russia--Treaty of Carlowitz--Brancovano
(Wallachia) and Cantemir (Moldavia) negotiate with Peter the
Great--First Russian invasion of the Principalities--Repelled by
the Turks--Flight of Cantemir--(Note: Anecdote of Russian
cupidity)--Arrest and execution of Brancovano and his family--His
great treasures--The Phanariotes--Their origin and rise--Massacred
in Wallachia--Second appearance--Extortions and
expulsion--Panaiotaki, Dragoman of the Porte--The
Mavrocordatos--Nicholas, first Phanariote Hospodar--Suppresses the
boyards' retainers--Constantine modifies slavery--Mode of
appointing hospodars--The Caimakam--Homage and servility of
boyards--Conduct of Phanariote rulers at home--Court
customs--Reputed effeminacy--Rapacity and exactions--Extortions of
officials--Extravagance of princesses--Treatment of
peasantry--Princes encourage brigandage--Usually deposed and
executed--Corruption of clergy--Other baneful effects of Phanariote
rule--(Note: Divorces in Roumania to-day)--Another view of
Phanariote princes--Their good works--Ypsilanti, Gregory
Ghika--Nicholas Mavrojeni and his cowardly boyards--Ennobles his
horses--Russo-Turkish wars--Treaty of Belgrade--Russian successes
and Austrian interference--Treaty of Kainardji--Russian
protectorate--Cession of Bucovine to Austria--Treaty of
Jassy--Amelioration of state of the Principalities, 1802--French
and English consuls appointed--Russo-Turkish war and
occupation--Treaty of Bucarest--Hetairia or Greek rising--Rebellion
in the Principalities--Career and fate of the patriots Vladimiresco
and Ypsilanti--End of Phanariote rule--Russian intervention and
occupation--Treaty of Adrianople and restoration of native
rulers--Patriotic efforts of Heliade and others--Rise of Roumanian
learning and art--The year of revolutions, 1848--Partial success of
the rising in Roumania--Suppression by Russia and Turkey--Escape of
the patriots--Review of the benefits of Russian interference in the
Principalities--Renewed Russian aggression--Brief history of the
war of 1854-1856 between Russia and the Western Powers and
Turkey--Treaty of Paris--Return of the patriots--Union of the
Principalities under Prince Couza--Incidents of his reign--His
deposition--How planned and effected--The provisional
government--Evil influence of Couza's conduct.


I.

The history of Moldo-Wallachia during the seventeenth century--that is to say, from the fall of Michael to the dispossession of the native voivodes at the beginning of the eighteenth century--possesses little interest for English readers. Some of the more important incidents will be referred to in connection with the subsequent régime of the Greek, or, as they are called, the Phanariote rulers appointed by the Porte, and it will only be necessary to make a few brief comments upon the condition of the country, and the character of two or three of the Voivodes who reigned during the century.

It may well be imagined that the humiliating defeats inflicted by Michael upon the Turkish armies would not tend to mollify the severity of their subsequent rule, and that the chief aim of the Porte would be to extort as large a revenue as possible from the conquered provinces, without regard to the sufferings of any class, This was effected by taking advantage of the jealousies and intrigues of the boyards who aspired to the rulership to obtain an increase of the tribute, and bribes; and a reference to the records of the time shows that whilst in Wallachia the rule of only three voivodes, and in Moldavia that of two only, exceeded five years, there were often two new princes appointed in the same year.[145] A noteworthy circumstance in connection with these voivodes is their gradual transition from native to Greek families. Here and there we have an Italian appellative, such as Quatiani or Rosetti, but in the main there is a change from the Bassarabs, the Bogdans, and the Radus, to the Ghikas, Cantacuzenes, Brancovanos, and eventually to the Mavrocordatos.[146] The explanation of this change will be given presently, but amongst the native rulers we may select two or three for brief comment. Between 1627 or 1633 and 1654 Matthew Baasarab ruled over Wallachia to the advantage of the nation. He drove out the Tartars who had overrun the country, and afterwards devoted himself to the welfare of his subjects. Bucarest was not yet the acknowledged capital, but he established a printing-press there, and also reformed the administration of justice. At the same time Basilius (known as Basil the Wolf), Prince of Moldavia, between whom and Matthew there had been great jealousy, followed his example in his own country, and a criminal code was introduced into both principalities, which, amongst its other provisions, legalised slavery in some of its most iniquitous forms. A few extracts from this code may be of interest, as showing the condition of the people at that time.

Anyone guilty of arson was burned alive.

Anyone harbouring a fugitive serf was liable to a fine of twelve
silver lions into court and twenty-four to the seigneur.[147]

If the gipsy of a boyard or his children stole some such trifle as
a chicken or an egg twice or three times, he was to be pardoned,
but if he stole anything more considerable he should be punished as
a thief. If he committed a theft to ward off starvation, he was
pardoned, and also if he stole from the enemy.

A treasure discovered by means of sorcery became the property of
the prince.

Besides the very severe punishments directed against other forms of
murder, poisoning, which must therefore have been frequent, has two
clauses provided for it. One is that, in addition to the punishment
of a murderer, his children shall be declared infamous.

If a man gave another a box on the ear, and was stabbed in return,
no punishment was inflicted, even if death ensued; and the whole
code of honour is of a like savage nature.

Doctors are to be believed in matters of hygiene before barbers or
sorcerers.

Bigamy was punished by the culprit being whipped through the town,
riding naked on a donkey.

If a person to whom the training of young girls was confided
corrupted and betrayed them to licentious men, hot lead was to be
poured down his (or her) throat until it reached his heart ( sic ),
'for it was from thence that the seductive counsels had proceeded.'

A slave or paid serf who committed rape was not put to death as
were others, but he was burned alive.

Torture was evidently quite common, for judges are forbidden to
torture innocent persons even by order of the prince.

Nobility clearly gave immunity to crime--at least it mitigated the
punishment; for 'neither nobles nor boyards nor their sons could be
condemned to the galleys nor to the mines, but they might be
banished for a longer or shorter period; they might not be hung,
nor impaled, nor dragged through the streets like ordinary
malefactors, but they should be decapitated.'

A wise and good Prince of Wallachia was Serban II. (Cantacuzene), 1679-1688, who built and improved churches and monasteries, and erected factories and workshops for the people. He also encouraged education and literature, founded the first Roumanian seminary, translated the Bible into Roumanian, and, so far as it was possible in the unfortunate condition of the country, he diminished the taxes of the poor.[148] He was compelled to join the Turks in their wars against Germany, but, summoning courage at a critical moment, he turned his arms against--or perhaps it would be more honest to say he betrayed--those of whom he was the unwilling ally. This happened during the siege of Vienna in 1683, where Serban was at the head of a contingent of four thousand Wallachians in the army of Cara Mustapha, and the duty was entrusted to him of constructing bridges and works. He took advantage of his position to communicate with the Germans, facilitated the destruction of the works which he himself had raised, and it is said that he loaded his guns with straw. He is said also to have erected a high cross opposite his tent, on which an inscription was graven capable of bearing a double interpretation, and which gave courage to the besieged. After the defeat of the Turks before Vienna through its relief by Sobieski, King of Poland, Serban fostered the idea of asserting his independence of Turkish rule; but before he was able to carry his plans into execution, he died (1688), it is said, poisoned by his brother and nephew.[149]

[Footnote 145: Vaillant (chronological table, vol. ii. p. 444) gives nineteen distinct princes, some of whom reigned twice in Wallachia, and twenty-eight, of whom one reigned three times in Moldavia, between 1601 and 1714. His dates and names must not, however, be regarded as authoritative.]

[Footnote 146: The reader who is interested in this subject will find a concise history of the following families in Carra, namely, Cantemir (said by some to be of Tartar origin), Ghika, Petreczeicus, Duca, Cantacuzene, Brancovano, Mavrocordato.]

[Footnote 147: A lion, crown, or ecu, of gold was worth about 4 s. 8 d. , of silver 2 s. 8 d. ]

[Footnote 148: An interesting reference to his good deeds will be found in the description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges in the first part of this work.]

[Footnote 149: The carelessness of the Roumanian chroniclers is simply intolerable. Vaillant, vol. ii. p. 88, says that Serban was poisoned on October 19, 1688; at p. 91 he says Constantine Preda, his successor, began to reign 1687; and in his chronology, p. 445, he says 1688. Such discrepancies constantly recur. Wilkinson makes the successor of Serban, Constantine Brancovano, the Voivode who secretly aided the Germans at Vienna, and places the event after 1695. He says the Voivode was probably bribed by the German Emperor to remain neutral. The siege of Vienna was in 1693.]


II.

But another great Power was drawing nearer and nearer to Roumania, which was eventually to exercise a