A History of China, Wolfram Eberhard [ebook offline txt] 📗

960 the Catalogue of Translations from the Chinese Dynastic Histories for the Period 220-960, by Hans H. Frankel, Berkeley 1957, is a reliable guide.

p. 125: For the description of conditions in Turkestan, especially in Tunhuang, I rely upon my own studies, but studies by A. von Gabein, L. Ligeti, J.R. Ware, O. Franke and Tsukamoto Zenryû have been used, too.

p. 133: These songs have first been studied by Hu Shih, later by Chinese folklorists.

p. 134: For problems of Chinese Buddhism see Arthur F. Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History, Stanford 1959, with further bibliography. I have used for this and later periods, in addition to my own sociological studies, R. Michihata, J. Gernet, and Tamai Korehiro.—It is interesting that the rise of landowning temples in India occurred at exactly the same time (R.S. Sharma in Journ. Econ. and Soc. Hist. Orient, vol. 1, 1958, p. 316). Perhaps even more interesting, but still unstudied, is the existence of Buddhist temples in India which owned land and villages which were donated by contributions from China.—For the use of foreign monks in Chinese bureaucracies, I have used M. Weber's theory as an interpretative tool.

p. 135: The important deities of Khotan Buddhism are Vai['s]ramana and Kubera, (research by P. Demiéville, R. Stein and others).—Where, how, and why Hinayana and Mahayana developed as separate sects, is not yet studied. Also, a sociological analysis of the different Buddhist sects in China has not even been attempted yet.

p. 136: Such public religious disputations were known also in India.

p. 137: Analysis of the tribal names has been made by L. Bazin.

pp. 138-9: The personality type which was the ideal of the Toba corresponded closely to the type described by G. Geesemann, Heroische Lebensform, Berlin 1943.

p. 142: The Toba occur in contemporary Western sources as Tabar, Tabgaç, Tafkaç and similar names. The ethnic name also occurs as a title (O. Pritsak, P. Pelliot, W. Haussig and others).—On the chün-t'ien system cf. the article by Wan Kuo-ting in E-tu Zen Sun, Chinese Social History, Washington 1956, p. 157-184. I also used Yoshimi Matsumoto and T'ang Ch'ang-ju.—Census fragments from Tunhuang have been published by L. Giles, Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.

p. 143: On slaves for the earlier time see M. Wilbur, Slavery in China during the Former Han Dynasty, Chicago 1943. For our period Wang Yi-t'ung and especially Niida Noboru and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu. I used for this discussion Niida, Ch'ü and Tamai Korehiro.—For the pu-ch'ü I used in addition Yang Chung-i, H. Maspero, E. Balazs, W. Eichhorn. Yang's article is translated in E-tu Zen Sun's book, Chinese Social History, pp. 142-56.—The question of slaves and their importance in Chinese society has always been given much attention by Chinese Communist authors. I believe that a clear distinction between slaves and serfs is very important.

p. 145: The political use of Buddhism has been asserted for Japan as well as for Korea and Tibet (H. Hoffmann, Quellen zur Geschichte der tibetischen Bon-Religion, Mainz 1950, p. 220 f.). A case could be made for Burma. In China, Buddhism was later again used as a tool by rulers (see below).

p. 146: The first text in which such problems of state versus church are mentioned is Mou Tz[)u] (P. Pelliot transl.). More recently, some of the problems have been studied by R. Michihata and E. Zürcher. Michihata also studied the temple slaves. Temple families were slightly different. They have been studied mainly by R. Michihata, J. Gernet and Wang Yi-t'ung. The information on T'an-yao is mainly in Wei-shu 114 (transl. J. Ware).—The best work on Yün-kang is now Seiichi Mizuno and Toshio Nagahiro, Yün-kang. The Buddhist Cave-Temples of the Fifth Century A.D. in North China, Kyoto 1951-6, thus far 16 volumes. For Chinese Buddhist art, the work by Tokiwa Daijô and Sekino Tadashi, Chinese Buddhist Monuments, Tokyo 1926-38, 5 volumes, is most profusely illustrated.—As a general reader for the whole of Chinese art, Alexander Soper and L. Sickman's The Art and Architecture of China, Baltimore 1956 may be consulted.

p, 147: Zenryû Tsukamoto has analysed one such popular, revolutionary Buddhist text from the fifth century A.D. I rely here for the whole chapter mainly upon my own research.

p. 150: On the Ephtalites (or Hephtalites) see R. Ghirshman and Enoki.—The carpet ceremony has been studied by P. Boodberg, and in a comparative way by L. Olschki, The Myth of Felt, Berkeley 1949.

p. 151: For Yang Chien and his time see now A.F. Wright, "The Formation of Sui Ideology" in John K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957, pp. 71-104.

p. 153: The processes described here, have not yet been thoroughly analysed. A preliminary review of literature is given by H. Wiens, China's March towards the Tropics, Hamden 1954. I used Ch'en Yüan, Wang Yi-t'ung and my own research.

p. 154: It is interesting to compare such hunting parks with the "paradeisos" (Paradise) of the Near East and with the "Garden of Eden".—Most of the data on gardens and manors have been brought together and studied by Japanese scholars, especially by Kat[=o] Shigeru, some also by Ho Tzû-ch'üan.—The disappearance of "village commons" in China should be compared with the same process in Europe; both processes, however, developed quite differently. The origin of manors and their importance for the social structure of the Far East (China as well as Japan) is the subject of many studies in Japan and in modern China. This problem is connected with the general problem of feudalism East and West. The manor (chuang: Japanese shô) in later periods has been studied by Y. Sudô. H. Maspero also devotes attention to this problem. Much more research remains to be done.

p. 158: This popular rebellion by Sun En has been studied by W. Eichhorn.

p. 163: On foreign music in China see L.C. Goodrich and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, H.G. Farmer, S. Kishibe and others.—Niida Noboru pointed out that musicians belonged to one of the lower social classes, but had special privileges because of their close relations to the rulers.

p. 164: Meditative or Ch'an (Japanese: Zen) Buddhism in this period has been studied by Hu Shih, but further analysis is necessary.—The philosophical trends of this period have been analysed by E. Balazs.—Mention should also be made of the aesthetic-philosophical conversation which was fashionable in the third century, but in other form still occurred in our period, the so-called "pure talk" (ch'ing-t'an) (E. Balazs, H. Wilhelm and others).

Chapter Eight

p. 167: For genealogies and rules of giving names, I use my own research and the study by W. Bauer.

p. 168: For Emperor Wen Ti, I rely mainly upon A.F. Wright's above-mentioned article, but also upon O. Franke.

p. 169: The relevant texts concerning the T'u-chüeh are available in French (E. Chavannes) and recently also in German translation (Liu Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-T[vu]rken, Wiesbaden 1958, 2 vol.).—The Tölös are called T'e-lo in Chinese sources; the T'u-yü-hun are called Aza in Central Asian sources (P. Pelliot, A. Minorsky, F.W. Thomas, L. Hambis, et al.). The most important text concerning the T'u-yü-hun had been translated by Th. D. Caroll, Account of the T'u-yü-hun in the History of the Chin Dynasty, Berkeley 1953.

p. 171: The transcription of names on this and on the other maps could not be adjusted to the transcription of the text for technical reasons.

p. 172: It is possible that I have underestimated the role of Li Yüan. I relied here mainly upon O. Franke and upon W. Bingham's The Founding of the T'ang Dynasty, Baltimore 1941.

p. 173: The best comprehensive study of T'ang economy in a Western language is still E. Balazs's work. I relied, however, strongly upon Wan Kuo-ting, Yang Chung-i, Kat[=o] Shigeru, J. Gernet, T. Naba, Niida Noboru, Yoshimi Matsumoto.

pp. 173-4: For the description of the administration I used my own studies and the work of R. des Rotours; for the military organization I used Kikuchi Hideo. A real study of Chinese army organization and strategy does not yet exist. The best detailed study, but for the Han period, is written by H. Maspero.

p. 174: For the first occurrence of the title tu-tu we used W. Eichhorn; in the form tutuq the title occurs since 646 in Central Asia (J. Hamilton).

p. 177: The name T'u-fan seems to be a transcription of Tüpöt which, in turn, became our Tibet. (J. Hamilton).—The Uighurs are the Hui-ho or Hui-hu of Chinese sources.

p. 179: On relations with Central Asia and the West see Ho Chien-min and Hsiang Ta, whose classical studies on Ch'ang-an city life have recently been strongly criticized by Chinese scholars.—Some authors (J.K. Rideout) point to the growing influence of eunuchs in this period.—The sources paint the pictures of the Empress Wu in very dark colours. A more detailed study of this period seems to be necessary.

p. 180: The best study of "family privileges" (yin) in general is by E.A. Kracke, Civil Service in Early Sung China, Cambridge, Mass. 1953.

p. 180-1: The economic importance of organized Buddhism has been studied by many authors, especially J. Gernet, Yang Lien-sheng, Ch'üan Han-sheng, K. Tamai and R. Michihata.

p. 182: The best comprehensive study on T'ang prose in English is still E.D. Edwards, Chinese Prose Literature of the T'ang Period, London 1937-8, 2 vol. On Li T'ai-po and Po Chü-i we have well-written books by A. Waley, The Poetry and Career of Li Po, London 1951 and The Life and Times of Po Chü-i, London 1950.—On the "free poem" (tz[)u]), which technically is not a free poem, see A. Hoffmann and Hu Shih. For the early Chinese theatre, the classical study is still Wang Kuo-wei's analysis, but there is an almost unbelievable number of studies constantly written in China and Japan, especially on the later theatre and drama.

p. 184: Conditions at the court of Hsüan Tsung and the life of Yang Kui-fei have been studied by Howard Levy and others, An Lu-shan's importance mainly by E.G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-shan, London 1955.

p. 187: The tax reform of Yang Yen has been studied by K. Hino; the most important figures in T'ang economic history are Liu Yen (studied by Chü Ch'ing-yüan) and Lu Chih (754-805; studied by E. Balazs and others).

pp. 187-8: The conditions at the time of this persecution are well described by E.O. Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in T'ang China, New York 1955, on the basis of his Ennin's Diary. The Record of a Pilgrimage to China, New York 1955. The persecution of Buddhism has been analysed in its economic character by Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.—Metal statues had to be delivered to the Salt and Iron Office in order to be converted into cash; iron statues were collected by local offices for the production of agricultural implements; figures in gold, silver or other rare materials were to be handed over to the Finance Office. Figures made of stone, clay or wood were not affected (Michihata).

p. 189: It seems important to note that popular movements are often not led by simple farmers of members of the lower classes. There are other salt merchants and persons of similar status known as leaders.

p. 190: For the Sha-t'o, I am relying upon my own research. Tatars are the Ta-tan of the Chinese sources. The term is here used in a narrow sense.

Chapter Nine

p. 195: Many Chinese and Japanese authors have a new period begin with the early (Ch'ien Mu) or the late tenth century (T'ao Hsi-sheng, Li Chien-nung), while others prefer a cut already in the Middle of the T'ang Dynasty (Teng Ch'u-min, Naito Torajiro). For many Marxists, the period which we called "Modern Times" is at best a sub-period within a larger period which really started with what we called "Medieval China".

p. 196: For the change in the composition of the gentry, I am using my own research.—For clan rules, clan foundations, etc., I used D.C. Twitchett, J. Fischer, Hu Hsien-chin, Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, Niida Noboru and T. Makino. The best analysis of the clan rules is by Wang Hui-chen in D.S. Nivison, Confucianism in Action, Stanford 1959, p. 63-96.—I do not regard such marriage systems as "survivals" of ancient systems which have been studied by M. Granet and systematically analysed by C. Lévy-Strauss in his Les structures élémentaires de la parenté, Paris 1949, pp. 381-443. In some cases, the reasons for the establishment of such rules can still be recognized.—A detailed study of despotism in China still has to be written. K.A. Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism, New Haven 1957 does not go into the necessary detailed work.

p. 197: The problem of social mobility is now under study, after preliminary research by K.A. Wittfogel, E. Kracke, myself and others. E. Kracke, Ho Ping-ti, R.M. Marsh and I are now working on this topic.—For the craftsmen and artisans, much material has recently been collected by Chinese scholars. I have used mainly Li Chien-nung and articles in Li-shih