The Grammar of English Grammars, Goold Brown [ebook reader for manga txt] 📗

p. ix. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deep."—Wilson's Heb. Gram., p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish."—Hume's Hist., ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "There is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the Bible."—Taylor's District School, p. 288. "I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished."—DR. NOTT: ib., p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable."—Taylor: ib., p. 58. "Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 19. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived."—Murray's Gram., p. 374. "If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."—Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the same Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same."—Ib., p. 259.

   "And children are more busy in their play
    Than those that wisely'st pass their time away."—Butler, p. 163.

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good."—Murray.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Our connective words are of four kinds; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs,[312] conjunctions, and prepositions. These have a certain resemblance to one another, so far as they are all of them connectives; yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent antecedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases; conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest.

OBS. 2.—Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves "devoid of signification;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition[313] of this part of speech. It is the office of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language.

   "The current is often evinced by the straws,
    And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather;
    So a speaker is known by his ands and his ors,
    Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together."—Robert F. Mott.

OBS. 3.—Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such, and repeat the definition above; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting "what precedes and what follows;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to the second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context.

OBS. 4.—However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to name the terms which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for himself what these terms are,—that is, to know what the conjunction does or does not, connect,—it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aristotle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, that "the Conjunction connects, not Words, but Sentences;" and frames his definition accordingly. See Hermes, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, "Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunction as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This Sanctius justly explodes."—Ib., p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted;—the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 557.

OBS. 5.—The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly expressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, "Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 'Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences;' 'Wisdom or folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, "contains two sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 124; Smith's, 95; Fisk's, 84; Ingersoll's, 81. By "the same moods, tenses, or cases," we must needs here understand some one mood, tense, or case, in which the connected words agree; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, if, that, though, lest, unless, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always be found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, and, as, even, than, or, and nor, though they may be used to connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The king and queen are an amiable pair."—Murray. "And a being of more than human dignity stood before me."—Dr. Johnson. It cannot be plausibly pretended, that and and than, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So and and or, in the examples above, connect the nouns only, and not "sentences:" else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to say, that the construction and meaning are not what they appear to be; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives, that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, according to the view which may be taken of them in analyzing."—Nutting's Gram., p. 77.

OBS. 6.—"Several words belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as conjunctions. Such are the following: provided, except, verbs; both, an adjective; either, neither, that, pronouns; being, seeing, participles; before, since, for, prepositions. I will do it, provided you lend some help. Here provided is a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. 'Paul said, Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here except is a conjunction. Excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction. 'Being this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.'—Bishop Pearson. 'Seeing all the congregation are holy.'—Bible. Here being and seeing are used as conjunctions."—Alexander's Gram:, p. 50. 'The foregoing remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. Before, when it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. Provided, as cited above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. Either and neither, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, "words belonging to other parts of speech, are used as conjunctions," is a sort of solecism, which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they really belong. Being, and being that, were formerly used in the sense of because, since, or seeing that; (Lat. cum, quoniam, or quando;) but this usage is now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of without, in the sense of unless, or except; (Lat. nisi;) as, "He cannot rise without he be helped." Walker's Particles, p. 425. "Non potest nisi adjutus exsurgere."—Seneca.

CLASSES.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive.

I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as, "He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—St. John's Gospel. "Be not faithless, but believing."—Id.

III. The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as, "John came neither eating nor drinking."—Matt., xi, 18. "But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come unto you."—Ib., xii, 28.

OBS.—Not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents, or corresponsives, are therefore to be reckoned conjunctions; nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech: some are adverbs; one or two are adjectives; and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb. But, if a word is seen to be the mere precursor, index, introductory sign, or counterpart, of a conjunction, and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech, it is, clearly, a conjunction,—a corresponding or corresponsive conjunction. It is a word used preparatively, "to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected."

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The Copulatives; And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.

2. The Disjunctives; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.

3. The Corresponsives; Both—and; as—as; as—so; if—then; either—or; neither—nor; whether—or; though, or although—yet.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—By some writers, the words, also, since, too, then, therefore, and wherefore, are placed among the copulative conjunctions; and as, so, still, however, and albeit, among the disjunctive; but Johnson and Webster have marked most of these terms as adverbs only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which name they are called; for, in some instances, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially. As, so, even, then, yet, and but, seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives. As, yet, and but, are generally conjunctions; but so, even, and then, are almost always adverbs. Seeing and provided, when used as connectives, are more properly conjunctions than any thing else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing many awkward ellipses, keeps them with the participles. Examples: "For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day."—Acts, ii, 15. "The senate shall have power to adjourn themselves, provided such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time."—Constitution of New Hampshire.

OBS. 2.—Since, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition: as, "Hast thou commanded the morning since thy days?"—Job. Albeit is equivalent in sense to although, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. As is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last: "We present ourselves as petitioners." If as is ever disjunctive, it is not so here; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term quasi is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly: as, "Et colles quasi pulverem pones;"—"And thou shalt make the hills as chaff."—Isaiah, xli, 15. So even,