Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory, Hugo Münsterberg [top fiction books of all time TXT] 📗

the keenest sense

of what is necessary to, or inconsistent with, its structure; so that

the slightest deviation from its form is remarked and the whole

sequence accurately reproduced.

 

In order to isolate and exhibit the tendency toward rhythmization in

regularly repeated motor reactions, one should examine series of

similar movements made at different rates both as an accompaniment to

a recurrent auditory stimulus and as free expressions of the motor

impulse independent of such objective control. In the former of these

cases the series of stimuli should be undifferentiated in quality as

well as uniform in time. The rhythm which appears in such a case will

contradict the phases of an objective series which prescribes its

form, and the evidence of its existence, presented under such adverse

conditions, should be indubitable.

 

As preliminary to their special work the members of the experimental

group were tested in regard to the promptness and regularity of their

reactions (by finger flexion) in accompanying a periodically recurrent

stimulus given by the beating of a metronome; records were taken also

of their capacity to estimate and maintain constant time relations by

freely tapping at intervals of one, two and five seconds. Of the

latter type of reaction the records show that a temporal grouping of

the reactions is presented in every rate of tapping. This, owing to

the large absolute intervals, is uniformly in groups of two, the first

member of which is of shorter, the second of longer duration. There is

likewise an intensive differentiation of the alternate reactions. Thus

a double rhythmical treatment appears, but while with intervals of two

seconds the phases of temporal and intensive rhythm coincide, at rates

of one and five seconds they are opposed, that is, the accentuation

falls on the initial reaction which is followed by the shorter

interval. This doubtlessly marks the emergence of that tendency to

initial accentuation which was subsequently found to prevail in all

expression of rhythm.

 

The types of reaction which these records afford leave no doubt that a

fuller investigation of the matter would show the constant presence,

in all such forms of activity, of a rhythmical automatization of the

series. The special problems which such an investigation should first

resolve, relate to the dependence of the amount of rhythmical

differentiation on the rate of succession among the reactions; the

relation of the form of this reaction series to factors of attention

and control; and the significance, in connection with the process of

rhythmization, of auditory stimuli produced by and accompanying the

reaction series, that is, the comparison of soundless and sounded

reactions.

 

In the second set of experiments the reactor was directed simply to

accompany the beating of a metronome by a light tapping with the

forefinger on a rubber-surfaced tambour connected with a pneumographic

registering pen, with which was aligned an electrical time-marker also

actuated by the metronome. Three rates of tapping were adopted, 60, 90

and 120 beats per minute. No specific instructions were given as to

direction or keenness of attention on the part of the reactor; the

most natural and simple accompaniment was desired. Occasionally, for

comparison, the reactor was directed to attend closely to each

successive beat as it occurred.

 

Certain questions as to the applicability of the material here

interpreted to the point in question, and as to its relation to the

objective conditions of experimentation, must be met at the outset.

The first of these is as to the actual uniformity of the metronome

series. Objective determination of its temporal regularity is

unnecessary (in so far as such a determination looks toward an

explanation of the form of tapping by reference to inequality in the

metronomic intervals). That the rhythmical phases which appear in the

accompaniment are not due to inequality in the stimulation intervals,

is shown by the reversal of relations between the metronome and its

accompaniment which occur in the midst of a continuous series of taps.

To speak roughly, a break occurs every twentieth beat. I do not refer

to minor irregularities occurring within the single group but not

affecting the form of the rhythmical accompaniment. The latter

appeared with surprising rarity, but when found were included in the

continuous calculation of averages. But in every score or so of beats

a stroke out of series would be interpolated, giving the form

| 1 >2 [1] 2 >1 |; the accompaniment being coördinated during the

second portion of the whole series with opposite phases of the

metronome from those with which its elements were connected in the

earlier part. Moreover, the dependence of this grouping of the sounds

on subjective attitudes may readily be made to appear. When attention

is turned keenly on the process its phases of rhythmical

differentiation decline; when the accompaniment becomes mechanical

they mount in value. When the observer tries to mark the ticking as

accurately as possible, not only does the index of his motor reactions

become more constant, but the sounds of the instrument likewise appear

more uniform. The observers report also that at one and the same time

they are aware of the regularity of the metronome and the rhythmical

nature of their tapping, while yet the conviction remains that the

accompaniment has been in time with the beats. Furthermore, if the

phases of ticking in the metronome were temporarily unlike, the motor

accompaniment by a series of observers, if accurate, should reproduce

the time-values of the process, and if inaccurate, should present only

an increase of the mean variation, without altering the characteristic

relations of the two phases. On the other hand, if the series be

uniform and subjectively rhythmized by the hearer, there should be

expected definite perversions of the objective relations, presenting a

series of increasing departures from the original in proportion as the

tendency to rhythmize varied from individual to individual.

 

On the other hand, a rhythm is already presented in the sounds of the

metronome, occasioned by the qualitative differentiation of the

members of each pair of ticks, a variation which it was impossible to

eliminate and which must be borne in mind in estimating the following

results.

 

Five reactors took part in the experiment, the results of which are

tabulated in the following pages. The figures are based on series of

one hundred reactions for each subject, fifty accompaniments to each

swing and return of the metronome pendulum. When taken in series of

ten successive pairs of reactions, five repetitions of the series will

be given as the basis of each average. The quantitative results are

stated in Tables VII.-XIV., which present the proportional values of

the time intervals elapsing between the successive reactions of an

accompaniment to the strokes of a metronome beating at the rates of

60, 90 and 120 per minute.

 

TABLE VII.

 

I. AVERAGES ACCORDING TO REACTORS OF ALL RATES FOR BOTH PHASES.

 

(a) In Series of Ten Successive Pairs of Beats.

 

Subject. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

 

J. 1.000 1.005 1.022 1.053 1.044 1.116 1.058 1.061 1.055 1.052

K. 1.000 1.027 1.057 1.111 1.093 1.086 1.074 1.096 1.093 1.071

N. 1.000 1.032 1.062 0.990 1.009 0.980 1.019 1.040 1.067 1.040

 

Aver. 1.000 1.021 1.047 1.051 1.049 1.061 1.050 1.066 1.072 1.054

 

TABLE VIII.

 

(b) First and Second Halves of the Preceding Combined in Series of

Five.

 

Subject. I II III IV V

J. 1.058 1.031 1.041 1.054 1.048

K. 1.043 1.050 1.076 1.102 1.082

N. 0.990 1.025 1.051 1.028 1.024

 

Aver. 1.030 1.035 1.056 1.061 1.051

 

TABLE IX.

 

AVERAGES OF ALL RATES AND SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO PHASES OF METRONOME.

 

(a) In Series of Ten Successive Reactions in Accompaniment of Each

Phase.

 

Phase. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

First, 1.000 1.055 1.102 1.097 1.082 1.066 1.053 1.123 1.120 1.074

Second, 1.000 0.988 0.992 1.007 1.016 1.055 1.015 1.009 1.024 1.001

 

TABLE X.

 

(b) First and Second Halves of the Preceding Combined in Series of

Five.

 

Phase. I II III IV V

First, 1.033 1.054 1.112 1.108 1.078

Second, 1.027 1.001 1.000 1.015 1.008

 

TABLE XI.

 

AVERAGES OF ALL SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO RATES AND PHASES OF METRONOME.

 

(a) First Phase, Series of Ten Successive Reactions.

 

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

60 1.000 1.168 1.239 1.269 1.237 1.209 1.265 1.243 1.237 1.229

90 1.000 1.048 1.063 1.095 1.086 1.069 1.102 1.127 1.168 1.095

120 1.000 1.004 0.942 1.043 1.057 0.978 0.949 1.065 1.065 0.967

 

TABLE XII.

 

(b) Second Phase, Series of Ten Successive Reactions.

 

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

60 1.000 0.963 0.942 0.947 1.009 0.695 0.993 0.995 1.023 0.996

90 1.000 0.893 0.987 1.018 1.036 1.005 0.995 1.000 0.977 1.000

120 1.000 1.000 0.990 1.048 1.040 1.007 0.986 1.030 1.037 0.962

 

TABLE XIII.

 

AVERAGES OF ALL SUBJECTS AND BOTH PHASES OF METRONOME ACCORDING TO

RATES.

 

(a) In Series of Ten.

 

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

60 1.000 1.065 1.140 1.108 1.123 0.952 1.129 1.119 1.130 1.112

90 1.000 0.970 1.025 1.056 1.061 1.037 1.048 1.063 1.072 1.047

120 1.000 1.000 0.990 1.048 1.040 1.007 0.986 1.030 1.037 0.962

 

TABLE XIV.

 

(b) Above Combined in Series of Five.

 

Rate. I II III IV V

60 0.976 1.097 1.129 1.119 1.117

90 1.018 1.009 1.044 1.059 1.054

120 1.003 0.993 1.010 1.042 1.001

 

In the following table (XV.) is presented the average proportional

duration of the intervals separating the successive reactions of these

subjects to the stimulations given by the alternate swing and return

of the pendulum.

 

TABLE XV.

 

Subject. Rate: 60. Rate: 90. Rate: 120.

B. 0.744 : 1.000 0.870 : 1.000 0.773 : 1.000

J. 0.730 : 1.000 0.737 : 1.000 0.748 : 1.000

K. 0.696 : 1.000 0.728 : 1.000 0.737 : 1.000

N. 0.526 : 1.000 0.844 : 1.000 0.893 : 1.000

 

The corresponding intensive values, as measured by the excursion of

the recording pen, are as follows:

 

TABLE XVI.

 

Subject. Rate: 60. Rate: 90. Rate: 120.

B. (1.066 : 1.000) 0.918 : 1.000 (1.010 : 1.000)

J. 0.938 : 1.000 0.943 : 1.000 0.946 : 1.000

K. 0.970 : 1.000 0.949 : 1.000 (1.034 : 1.000)

N. 0.883 : 1.000 0.900 : 1.000 0.950 : 1.000

 

These figures present a double process of rhythmic differentiation,

intensively into stronger and weaker beats, and temporally into

longer and shorter intervals. The accentuation of alternate elements

has an objective provocative in the qualitative unlikeness of the

ticks given by the swing and return of the pendulum. This phase is,

however, neither so clearly marked nor so constant as the temporal

grouping of the reactions. In three cases the accent swings over to

the shorter interval, which, according to the report of the subjects,

formed the initial member of the group when such grouping came to

subjective notice. This latter tendency appears most pronounced at the

fastest rate of reaction, and perhaps indicates a tendency at rapid

tempos to prefer trochaic forms of rhythm. In temporal grouping the

coördination of results with the succession of rates presents an

exception only in the case of one subject (XV. B, Rate 120), and the

various observers form a series in which the rhythmizing tendency

becomes more and more pronounced.

 

Combining the reactions of the various subjects, the average for all

shows an accentuation of the longer interval, as follows:

 

TABLE XVII.

 

Rate. Temp. Diff. Intens. Diff.

60 0.674 : 1.000 0.714 : 1.000

90 0.795 : 1.000 0.927 : 1.000

120 0.788 : 1.000 0.985 : 1.000

 

The rhythmical differentiation of phases is greatest at the slowest

tempo included in the series, namely, one beat per second, and it

declines