The Evolution of Man, vol 1, Ernst Haeckel [books to read this summer TXT] 📗

it is hardly necessary to dwell on the defects of this earlier view and the erroneous conclusions drawn from it. In reality, the first segmentation-cell, and even the stem-cell itself and all that issues therefrom, belong to the embryo. As the large original yelk-mass in the undivided egg of the bird only represents an inclosure in the greatly enlarged ovum, so the later contents of its embryonic yelk-sac (whether yet segmented or not) are only a part of the entoderm which forms the primitive gut. This is clearly shown by the ova of the amphibia and cyclostoma, which explain the transition from the yelk-less ova of the amphioxus to the large yelk-filled ova of the reptiles and birds.

It is precisely in the study of these difficult features that we see the incalculable value of phylogenetic considerations in explaining complex ontogenetic facts, and the need of separating cenogenetic phenomena from palingenetic. This is particularly clear as regards the comparative embryology of the vertebrates, because here the phylogenetic unity of the stem has been already established by the well-known facts of paleontology and comparative anatomy. If this unity of the stem, on the basis of the amphioxus, were always borne in mind, we should not have these errors constantly recurring.

In many cases the cenogenetic relation of the embryo to the food-yelk has until now given rise to a quite wrong idea of the first and most important embryonic processes in the higher vertebrates, and has occasioned a number of false theories in connection with them. Until thirty years ago the embryology of the higher vertebrates always started from the position that the first structure of the embryo is a flat, leaf-shaped disk; it was for this reason that the cell-layers that compose this germinal disk (also called germinative area) are called “germinal layers.” This flat germinal disk, which is round at first and then oval, and which is often described as the tread or cicatricula in the laid hen’s egg, is found at a certain part of the surface of the large globular food-yelk. I am convinced that it is nothing else than the discoid, flattened gastrula of the birds. At the beginning of germination the flat embryonic disk curves outwards, and separates on the inner side from the underlying large yelk-ball. In this way the flat layers are converted into tubes, their edges folding and joining together (Figure 1.105). As the embryo grows at the expense of the food-yelk, the latter becomes smaller and smaller; it is completely surrounded by the germinal layers. Later still, the remainder of the food-yelk only forms a small round sac, the yelk-sac or umbilical vesicle (Figure 1.105 nb). This is enclosed by the visceral layer, is connected by a thin stalk, the yelk-duct, with the central part of the gut-tube, and is finally, in most of the vertebrates, entirely absorbed by this (H). The point at which this takes place, and where the gut finally closes, is the visceral navel.

In the mammals, in which the remainder of the yelk-sac remains without and atrophies, the yelk-duct at length penetrates the outer ventral wall. At birth the umbilical cord proceeds from here, and the point of closure remains throughout life in the skin as the navel.

As the older embryology of the higher vertebrates was mainly based on the chick, and regarded the antithesis of embryo (or formative-yelk) and food-yelk (or yelk-sac) as original, it had also to look upon the flat leaf-shaped structure of the germinal disk as the primitive embryonic form, and emphasise the fact that hollow grooves were formed of these flat layers by folding, and closed tubes by the joining together of their edges.

This idea, which dominated the whole treatment of the embryology of the higher vertebrates until thirty years ago, was totally false. The gastraea theory, which has its chief application here, teaches us that it is the very reverse of the truth. The cup-shaped gastrula, in the body-wall of which the two primary germinal layers appear from the first as closed tubes, is the original embryonic form of all the vertebrates, and all the multicellular invertebrates; and the flat germinal disk with its superficially expanded germinal layers is a later, secondary form, due to the cenogenetic formation of the large food-yelk and the gradual spread of the germ-layers over its surface.

Hence the actual folding of the germinal layers and their conversion into tubes is not an original and primary, but a much later and tertiary, evolutionary process. In the phylogeny of the vertebrate embryonic process we may distinguish the following three stages:—

A. First Stage: Primary (palingenetic) embryonic process.

The germinal layers form from the first closed tubes, the one-layered blastula being converted into the two-layered gastrula by invagination. No food-yelk. (Amphioxus.) B. Second Stage: Secondary (cenogenetic) embryonic process.

The germinal layers spread out leaf-wise, food-yelk gathering in the ventral entoderm, and a large yelk-sac being formed from the middle of the gut-tube. (Amphibia.)

C. Third Stage: Tertiary (cenogenetic) embryonic process.

The germinal layers form a flat germinal disk, the borders of which join together and form closed tubes, separating from the central yelk-sac. (Amniotes.)

As this theory, a logical conclusion from the gastraea theory, has been fully substantiated by the comparative study of gastrulation in the last few decades, we must exactly reverse the hitherto prevalent mode of treatment. The yelk-sac is not to be treated, as was done formerly, as if it were originally antithetic to the embryo, but as an essential part of it, a part of its visceral tube. The primitive gut of the gastrula has, on this view, been divided into two parts in the higher animals as a result of the cenogenetic formation of the food-yelk—the permanent gut (metagaster), or permanent alimentary canal, and the yelk-sac (lecithoma), or umbilical vesicle. This is very clearly shown by the comparative ontogeny of the fishes and amphibia. In these cases the whole yelk undergoes cleavage at first, and forms a yelk-gland, composed of yelk-cells, in the ventral wall of the primitive gut. But it afterwards becomes so large that a part of the yelk does not divide, and is used up in the yelk-sac that is cut off outside.

(FIGURE 1.106. The visceral embryonic vesicle (blastocystis or gastrocystis) of a rabbit (the “blastula” or vesicula blastodermica of other writers), a outer envelope (ovolemma), b skin-layer or ectoderm, forming the entire wall of the yelk-vesicle, c groups of dark cells, representing the visceral layer or entoderm.

FIGURE 1.107. The same in section. Letters as above. d cavity of the vesicle. (From Bischoff.))

When we make a comparative study of the embryology of the amphioxus, the frog, the chick, and the rabbit, there cannot, in my opinion, be any further doubt as to the truth of this position, which I have held for thirty years. Hence in the light of the gastraea theory we must regard the features of the amphioxus as the only and real primitive structure among all the vertebrates, departing very little from the palingenetic embryonic form. In the cyclostoma and the frog these features are, on the whole, not much altered cenogenetically, but they are very much so in the chick, and most of all in the rabbit. In the bell-gastrula of the amphioxus and in the hooded gastrula of the lamprey and the frog the germinal layers are found to be closed tubes or vesicles from the first. On the other hand, the chick-embryo (in the new laid, but not yet hatched, egg) is a flat circular disk, and it was not easy to recognise this as a real gastrula. Rauber and Goette have, however, achieved this. As the discoid gastrula grows round the large globular yelk, and the permanent gut then separates from the outlying yelk-sac, we find all the processes which we have shown (diagrammatically) in Figure 1.108—processes that were hitherto regarded as principal acts, whereas they are merely secondary.

The oldest, oviparous mammals, the monotremes, behave in the same way as the reptiles and birds. But the corresponding embryonic processes in the viviparous mammals, the marsupials and placentals, are very elaborate and distinctive. They were formerly quite misinterpreted; it was not until the publication of the studies of Edward van Beneden (1875) and the later research of Selenka, Kuppfer, Rabl, and others, that light was thrown on them, and we were in a position to bring them into line with the principles of the gastraea theory and trace them to the embryonic forms of the lower vertebrates. Although there is no independent food-yelk, apart from the formative yelk, in the mammal ovum, and although its segmentation is total on that account, nevertheless a large yelk-sac is formed in their embryos, and the “embryo proper” spreads leaf-wise over its surface, as in the reptiles and birds, which have a large food-yelk and partial segmentation. In the mammals, as well as in the latter, the flat, leaf-shaped germinal disk separates from the yelk-sac, and its edges join together and form tubes.

How can we explain this curious anomaly? Only as a result of very characteristic and peculiar cenogenetic modifications of the embryonic process, the real causes of which must be sought in the change in the rearing of the young on the part of the viviparous mammals. These are clearly connected with the fact that the ancestors of the viviparous mammals were oviparous amniotes like the present monotremes, and only gradually became viviparous. This can no longer be questioned now that it has been shown (1884) that the monotremes, the lowest and oldest of the mammals, still lay eggs, and that these develop like the ova of the reptiles and birds. Their nearest descendants, the marsupials, formed the habit of retaining the eggs, and developing them in the oviduct; the latter was thus converted into a womb (uterus). A nutritive fluid that was secreted from its wall, and passed through the wall of the blastula, now served to feed the embryo, and took the place of the food-yelk. In this way the original food-yelk of the monotremes gradually atrophied, and at last disappeared so completely that the partial ovum-segmentation of their descendants, the rest of the mammals, once more became total. From the discogastrula of the former was evolved the distinctive epigastrula of the latter.

It is only by this phylogenetic explanation that we can understand the formation and development of the peculiar, and hitherto totally misunderstood, blastula of the mammal. The vesicular condition of the mammal embryo was discovered 200 years ago (1677) by Regner de Graaf.

He found in the uterus of a rabbit four days after impregnation small, round, loose, transparent vesicles, with a double envelope. However, Graaf’s discovery passed without recognition. It was not until 1827

that these vesicles were rediscovered by Baer, and then more closely studied in 1842 by Bischoff in the rabbit (Figures 1.106 and 1.107).

They are found in the womb of the rabbit, the dog, and other small mammals, a few days after copulation. The mature ova of the mammal, when they have left the ovary, are fertilised either here or in the oviduct immediately afterwards by the invading sperm-cells. ( In man and the other mammals the fertilisation of the ova probably takes place, as a rule, in the oviduct; here the ova, which issue from the female ovary in the shape of the Graafian follicle, and enter the inner aperture of the oviduct, encounter the mobile sperm-cells of the male seed, which pass into the uterus at copulation, and from this into the external aperture of the oviduct. Impregnation rarely takes place in the ovary or in the womb.) (As to the womb and oviduct see Chapter 2.29.) The cleavage and formation of the gastrula take place in the oviduct. Either here in the oviduct or after the mammal gastrula has passed into the uterus it is converted into the globular vesicle which is shown externally in Figure 1.106, and in section in Figure 1.107. The thick,