The Story of the Heavens, Sir Robert Stawell Ball [snow like ashes series TXT] 📗
- Author: Sir Robert Stawell Ball
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It had been imagined that the proximity of the two stars forming a double must be only accidental. It was thought that amid the vast host of stars in the heavens it not unfrequently happened that one star was so nearly behind another (as seen from the earth) that when the two were viewed in the telescope they produced the effect of a double star. No doubt many of the so-called double stars are produced in this way. Herschel's discovery shows that this explanation will not always answer, but that in many cases we really have two stars close together, and in motion round their common centre of gravity.
When the measurements of the distances and the positions of double stars had been accumulated during many years, they were taken over by the mathematicians to be treated by their methods. There is one peculiarity about double star observations: they have not--they cannot have--the accuracy which the computer of an orbit demands. If the distance between the pair of stars forming a binary be four seconds, the orbit we have to scrutinise is only as large as the apparent size of a penny-piece at the distance of one mile. It would require very careful measurement to make out the form of a penny a mile off, even with good telescopes. If the penny were tilted a little, it would appear, not circular, but oval; and it would be possible, by measuring this oval, to determine how much the penny was tilted. All this requires skilful work: the errors, viewed intrinsically, may not be great, but viewed with reference to the whole size of the quantities under consideration, they are very appreciable. We therefore find the errors of observation far more prominent in observations of this class than is generally the case when the mathematician assumes the task of discussing the labours of the observer.
The interpretation of Herschel's discovery was not accomplished by himself; the light of mathematics was turned on his observations of the binary stars by Savary, and afterwards by other mathematicians. Under their searching enquiries the errors of the measurements were disclosed, and the observations were purified from the grosser part of their inaccuracy. Mathematicians could then apply to their corrected materials the methods of enquiry with which they were familiar; they could deduce with fair precision the actual shape of the orbit of the binary stars, and the position of the plane in which that orbit is contained. The result is not a little remarkable. It has been proved that the motion of each of the stars is performed in an ellipse which contains the centre of gravity of the two stars in its focus. This has been actually shown to be true in many binary stars; it is believed to be true in all. But why is this so important? Is not motion in an ellipse common enough? Does not the earth revolve in an ellipse round the sun? And do not the planets also revolve in ellipses?
It is this very fact that elliptic motion is so common in the planets of the solar system which renders its discovery in binary stars of such importance. From what does the elliptic motion in the solar system arise? Is it not due to the law of attraction, discovered by Newton, which states that every mass attracts every other mass with a force which varies inversely as the square of the distance? That law of attraction had been found to pervade the whole solar system, and it explained the movements of the bodies of our system with marvellous fidelity. But the solar system, consisting of the sun, and the planets, with their satellites, the comets, and a host of smaller bodies, formed merely a little island group in the universe. In the economy of this tiny cosmical island the law of gravitation reigns supreme; before Herschel's discovery we never could have known whether that law was not merely a piece of local legislation, specially contrived for the exigencies of our particular system. This discovery gave us the knowledge which we could have gained from no other source. From the binary stars came a whisper across the vast abyss of space. That whisper told us that the law of gravitation was not peculiar to the solar system. It told us the law extended to the distant shores of the abyss in which our island is situated. It gives us grounds for believing that the law of gravitation is obeyed throughout the length, breadth, and depth of the entire visible universe.
One of the finest binary stars is that known as Castor, the brighter of the two principal stars in the constellation of Gemini. The position of Castor on the heavens is indicated in Fig. 86, page 418. Viewed by the unaided eye, Castor resembles a single star; but with a moderately good telescope it is found that what seems to be one star is really two separate stars, one of which is of the third magnitude, while the other is somewhat less. The angular distance of these two stars in the heavens is not so great as the angle subtended by a line an inch long viewed at a distance of half a mile. Castor is one of the double stars in which the components have been observed to possess a motion of revolution. The movement is, however, extremely slow, and the lapse of centuries will be required before a revolution is completely effected.
A beautiful double star can be readily identified in the constellation of Ursa Major (_see_ Fig. 80, page 410). It is known as Mizar, and is the middle star (z) of the three which form the tail. In the close neighbourhood of Mizar is the small star Alcor, which can be readily seen with the unaided eye; but when we speak of Mizar as a double star, it is not to be understood that Alcor is one of the components of the double. Under the magnifying power of the telescope Alcor is seen to be transferred a long way from Mizar, while Mizar itself is split up into two suns close together. These components are of the second and the fourth magnitudes respectively, and as the apparent distance is nearly three times as great as in Castor, they are observed with facility even in a small telescope. This is, indeed, the best double star in the heavens for the beginner to commence his observations upon. We cannot, however, assert that Mizar is a binary, inasmuch as observations have not yet established the existence of a motion of revolution. Still less are we able to say whether Alcor is also a member of the same group, or whether it may not merely be a star which happens to fall nearly in the line of vision. Recent spectroscopic observations have shown that the larger component of Mizar is itself a double, consisting of a pair of suns so close together that there is not the slightest possibility of their ever being seen separately by the most powerful telescope in the world.
A pleasing class of double stars is that in which we have the remarkable phenomenon of colours, differing in a striking degree from the colours of ordinary stars. Among the latter we find, in the great majority of cases, no very characteristic hue; some are, however, more or less tinged with red, some are decidedly ruddy, and some are intensely red. Stars of a bluish or greenish colour are much more rare,[37] and when a star of this character does occur, it is almost invariably as one of a pair which form a double. The other star of the double is sometimes of the same hue, but more usually it is yellow or ruddy.
One of the loveliest of these objects, which lies within reach of telescopes of very moderate pretensions, is that found in the constellation of the Swan, and known as b Cygni (Fig. 91). This exquisite object is composed of two stars. The larger, about the third magnitude, is of a golden-yellow, or topaz, colour; the smaller, of the sixth magnitude, is of a light blue. These colours are nearly complementary, but still there can be no doubt that the effect is not merely one of contrast. That these two stars are both tinged with the hues we have stated can be shown by hiding each in succession behind a bar placed in the field of view. It has also been confirmed in a very striking manner by spectroscopic investigation; for we see that the blue star has experienced a special absorption of the red rays, while the more ruddy light of the other star has arisen from the absorption of the blue rays. The contrast of the colours in this object can often be very effectively seen by putting the eye-piece out of focus. The discs thus produced show the contrast of colours better than when the telescope exhibits merely two stellar points.
Such are a few of these double and multiple stars. Their numbers are being annually augmented; indeed, one observer--Mr. Burnham, formerly on the staff of the Lick Observatory, and now an observer in the Yerkes Observatory--has added by his own researches more than 1,000 new doubles to the list of those previously known.
The interest in this class of objects must necessarily be increased when we reflect that, small as the stars appear to be in our telescopes, they are in reality suns of great size and splendour, in many cases rivalling our own sun, or, perhaps, even surpassing him. Whether these suns have planets attending upon them we cannot tell; the light reflected from the planet would be utterly inadequate to the penetration of the vast extent of space which separates us from the stars. If there be planets surrounding these objects, then, instead of a single sun, such planets will be illuminated by two, or, perhaps, even more suns. What wondrous effects of light and shade must be the result! Sometimes both suns will be above the horizon together, sometimes only one sun, and sometimes both will be absent. Especially remarkable would be the condition of a planet whose suns were of the coloured type. To-day we have a red sun illuminating the heavens, to-morrow it would be a blue sun, and, perhaps, the day after both the red sun and the blue sun will be in the firmament together. What endless variety of scenery such a thought suggests! There are, however, grave dynamical reasons for doubting whether the conditions under which such a planet would exist could be made compatible with life in any degree resembling the life with which we are familiar. The problem of the movement of a planet under the influence of two suns is one of the most difficult that has ever been proposed to mathematicians, and it is, indeed, impossible in the present state of analysis to solve with accuracy all the questions which it implies. It seems not at all unlikely that the disturbances of the planet's orbit would be so great that it would be exposed to vicissitudes of light and of temperature far transcending those experienced by a planet moving, like the earth, under the supreme control of a single sun.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.
It had been imagined that the proximity of the two stars forming a double must be only accidental. It was thought that amid the vast host of stars in the heavens it not unfrequently happened that one star was so nearly behind another (as seen from the earth) that when the two were viewed in the telescope they produced the effect of a double star. No doubt many of the so-called double stars are produced in this way. Herschel's discovery shows that this explanation will not always answer, but that in many cases we really have two stars close together, and in motion round their common centre of gravity.
When the measurements of the distances and the positions of double stars had been accumulated during many years, they were taken over by the mathematicians to be treated by their methods. There is one peculiarity about double star observations: they have not--they cannot have--the accuracy which the computer of an orbit demands. If the distance between the pair of stars forming a binary be four seconds, the orbit we have to scrutinise is only as large as the apparent size of a penny-piece at the distance of one mile. It would require very careful measurement to make out the form of a penny a mile off, even with good telescopes. If the penny were tilted a little, it would appear, not circular, but oval; and it would be possible, by measuring this oval, to determine how much the penny was tilted. All this requires skilful work: the errors, viewed intrinsically, may not be great, but viewed with reference to the whole size of the quantities under consideration, they are very appreciable. We therefore find the errors of observation far more prominent in observations of this class than is generally the case when the mathematician assumes the task of discussing the labours of the observer.
The interpretation of Herschel's discovery was not accomplished by himself; the light of mathematics was turned on his observations of the binary stars by Savary, and afterwards by other mathematicians. Under their searching enquiries the errors of the measurements were disclosed, and the observations were purified from the grosser part of their inaccuracy. Mathematicians could then apply to their corrected materials the methods of enquiry with which they were familiar; they could deduce with fair precision the actual shape of the orbit of the binary stars, and the position of the plane in which that orbit is contained. The result is not a little remarkable. It has been proved that the motion of each of the stars is performed in an ellipse which contains the centre of gravity of the two stars in its focus. This has been actually shown to be true in many binary stars; it is believed to be true in all. But why is this so important? Is not motion in an ellipse common enough? Does not the earth revolve in an ellipse round the sun? And do not the planets also revolve in ellipses?
It is this very fact that elliptic motion is so common in the planets of the solar system which renders its discovery in binary stars of such importance. From what does the elliptic motion in the solar system arise? Is it not due to the law of attraction, discovered by Newton, which states that every mass attracts every other mass with a force which varies inversely as the square of the distance? That law of attraction had been found to pervade the whole solar system, and it explained the movements of the bodies of our system with marvellous fidelity. But the solar system, consisting of the sun, and the planets, with their satellites, the comets, and a host of smaller bodies, formed merely a little island group in the universe. In the economy of this tiny cosmical island the law of gravitation reigns supreme; before Herschel's discovery we never could have known whether that law was not merely a piece of local legislation, specially contrived for the exigencies of our particular system. This discovery gave us the knowledge which we could have gained from no other source. From the binary stars came a whisper across the vast abyss of space. That whisper told us that the law of gravitation was not peculiar to the solar system. It told us the law extended to the distant shores of the abyss in which our island is situated. It gives us grounds for believing that the law of gravitation is obeyed throughout the length, breadth, and depth of the entire visible universe.
One of the finest binary stars is that known as Castor, the brighter of the two principal stars in the constellation of Gemini. The position of Castor on the heavens is indicated in Fig. 86, page 418. Viewed by the unaided eye, Castor resembles a single star; but with a moderately good telescope it is found that what seems to be one star is really two separate stars, one of which is of the third magnitude, while the other is somewhat less. The angular distance of these two stars in the heavens is not so great as the angle subtended by a line an inch long viewed at a distance of half a mile. Castor is one of the double stars in which the components have been observed to possess a motion of revolution. The movement is, however, extremely slow, and the lapse of centuries will be required before a revolution is completely effected.
A beautiful double star can be readily identified in the constellation of Ursa Major (_see_ Fig. 80, page 410). It is known as Mizar, and is the middle star (z) of the three which form the tail. In the close neighbourhood of Mizar is the small star Alcor, which can be readily seen with the unaided eye; but when we speak of Mizar as a double star, it is not to be understood that Alcor is one of the components of the double. Under the magnifying power of the telescope Alcor is seen to be transferred a long way from Mizar, while Mizar itself is split up into two suns close together. These components are of the second and the fourth magnitudes respectively, and as the apparent distance is nearly three times as great as in Castor, they are observed with facility even in a small telescope. This is, indeed, the best double star in the heavens for the beginner to commence his observations upon. We cannot, however, assert that Mizar is a binary, inasmuch as observations have not yet established the existence of a motion of revolution. Still less are we able to say whether Alcor is also a member of the same group, or whether it may not merely be a star which happens to fall nearly in the line of vision. Recent spectroscopic observations have shown that the larger component of Mizar is itself a double, consisting of a pair of suns so close together that there is not the slightest possibility of their ever being seen separately by the most powerful telescope in the world.
A pleasing class of double stars is that in which we have the remarkable phenomenon of colours, differing in a striking degree from the colours of ordinary stars. Among the latter we find, in the great majority of cases, no very characteristic hue; some are, however, more or less tinged with red, some are decidedly ruddy, and some are intensely red. Stars of a bluish or greenish colour are much more rare,[37] and when a star of this character does occur, it is almost invariably as one of a pair which form a double. The other star of the double is sometimes of the same hue, but more usually it is yellow or ruddy.
One of the loveliest of these objects, which lies within reach of telescopes of very moderate pretensions, is that found in the constellation of the Swan, and known as b Cygni (Fig. 91). This exquisite object is composed of two stars. The larger, about the third magnitude, is of a golden-yellow, or topaz, colour; the smaller, of the sixth magnitude, is of a light blue. These colours are nearly complementary, but still there can be no doubt that the effect is not merely one of contrast. That these two stars are both tinged with the hues we have stated can be shown by hiding each in succession behind a bar placed in the field of view. It has also been confirmed in a very striking manner by spectroscopic investigation; for we see that the blue star has experienced a special absorption of the red rays, while the more ruddy light of the other star has arisen from the absorption of the blue rays. The contrast of the colours in this object can often be very effectively seen by putting the eye-piece out of focus. The discs thus produced show the contrast of colours better than when the telescope exhibits merely two stellar points.
Such are a few of these double and multiple stars. Their numbers are being annually augmented; indeed, one observer--Mr. Burnham, formerly on the staff of the Lick Observatory, and now an observer in the Yerkes Observatory--has added by his own researches more than 1,000 new doubles to the list of those previously known.
The interest in this class of objects must necessarily be increased when we reflect that, small as the stars appear to be in our telescopes, they are in reality suns of great size and splendour, in many cases rivalling our own sun, or, perhaps, even surpassing him. Whether these suns have planets attending upon them we cannot tell; the light reflected from the planet would be utterly inadequate to the penetration of the vast extent of space which separates us from the stars. If there be planets surrounding these objects, then, instead of a single sun, such planets will be illuminated by two, or, perhaps, even more suns. What wondrous effects of light and shade must be the result! Sometimes both suns will be above the horizon together, sometimes only one sun, and sometimes both will be absent. Especially remarkable would be the condition of a planet whose suns were of the coloured type. To-day we have a red sun illuminating the heavens, to-morrow it would be a blue sun, and, perhaps, the day after both the red sun and the blue sun will be in the firmament together. What endless variety of scenery such a thought suggests! There are, however, grave dynamical reasons for doubting whether the conditions under which such a planet would exist could be made compatible with life in any degree resembling the life with which we are familiar. The problem of the movement of a planet under the influence of two suns is one of the most difficult that has ever been proposed to mathematicians, and it is, indeed, impossible in the present state of analysis to solve with accuracy all the questions which it implies. It seems not at all unlikely that the disturbances of the planet's orbit would be so great that it would be exposed to vicissitudes of light and of temperature far transcending those experienced by a planet moving, like the earth, under the supreme control of a single sun.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.
Sounding-line for Space--The Labours of Bessel--Meaning of Annual
Parallax--Minuteness of the Parallactic Ellipse Illustrated--The
Case of 61 Cygni--Different Comparison Stars used--The Proper
Motion of the Star--Struve's Investigations--Can they be
Reconciled?--Researches at Dunsink--Conclusion obtained--Accuracy
which such Observations admit Examined--The Proper Motion of 61
Cygni--The Permanence of the Sidereal Heavens--The New Star in
Cygnus--Its History--No Appreciable Parallax--A Mighty Outburst of
Light--The Movement of the Solar System through Space--Herschel's
Discovery--Journey towards Lyra--Probabilities.
We have long known the
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