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classification of some of the Sanskrit terms in Malay has been attempted in this Introduction.11 It is hoped that the subject may attract the attention of those more competent to deal with it, and that the researches of Sanskrit scholars may facilitate a decision which there is no pretension to pronounce here.

The centre of Hindu influence in Malay states would seem to have been the court. From the governing classes the use of Sanskrit expressions would gradually spread among the people. To this day there are certain Sanskrit words which are applied to royalty alone, there being native equivalents when the non-privileged classes are intended. The words putra and putrî afford an instance in point. Meaning simply “son” and “daughter” in Sanskrit, they have, from the fact of Sanskrit nomenclature having been affected at Malay courts, come to mean “prince” and “princess,” and are applied only to the sons and daughters of rajas.

At the chief seats of Hindu government, there must have been Brahmans conversant with the sacred writings, whose teaching would gradually be the means of introducing a taste for Hindu learning and literature. Bacha, to read (from bach, to speak), is Sanskrit, but tulis, to write, is a native word,12 and surat, a writing, is Arabic. Language, therefore, in this instance does not throw much light on the progress made by the Malays in the art of writing in the pre-Muhammadan stage of their history. Rock-inscriptions found in Province Wellesley and Singapore prove, however, that at some remote period an ancient Indian character was known on the Peninsula,13 though it was probably confined to religious purposes.

Crawfurd, writing in 1852, stated that Malay can be written or spoken without the least difficulty, without a word of Sanskrit or Arabic, and described the foreign elements in Malay as “extrinsic and unessential.”14 But several words of the first necessity are Sanskrit. It would be difficult to speak Malay intelligibly, while avoiding the use of the relative pronouns yang (Sansk. yas, ya, yat, who, which) and mana (Sansk. mâna, measure), or of the common auxiliary sudah (Sansk. çuddha,15 pure, acquitted), which denotes the past tense. A long list might be made of common words not included in any of the following groups, which are almost pure Sanskrit, such as bawa, to bring (vaha, bearing, carrying); kata, to say (kath, to tell, talk); biasa, accustomed (abhyâsa, reflection); langkah, to step, stride (langh, to stride over); kelahi, to fight (kalaha, quarrel); and niala, to blaze, to burn (jval). Nor is the influence of Sanskrit in Malay confined to words which have been adopted in comparative purity. An extension of the sphere of research reveals whole groups of Malay words which seem to be formed from some Sanskrit root, and to retain to some extent its signification. Thus the Sanskrit root ju (to push on, impel) may perhaps be detected in such words as juwang, to rush against; jungur, prominent, a beak; jungang, prominent (of teeth); juring, sharp, pointed; jurus, to pull, course, direction; juluk, to thrust upwards; julir, a kind of harpoon; julur, to wag, to wriggle; &c.

Ap is a common termination of Malay words, e.g., tangkap, to seize; chakap, to speak; silap, to mistake, &c. The presence of the Sanskrit root âp (to attain, obtain) is not indeed to be assumed in every case, but it is difficult to resist the conviction that it does form a part of many Malay derivations. Dapat, to obtain; rapat, to approach; asap, smoke (cf. vyâpta); awap, steam; tangkap, to seize, grasp; alap (Jav.), to take; are instances which, among others, might be cited.

Gal (Sansk., to drop, to distil, percolate, to fall) is another root which seems to enter into the composition of Malay words, e.g., tanggal, to fall off, to drop out; tinggal, to leave, forsake; tunggal, solitary; panggal, to chop off, a portion chopped off. Compare also gali, to dig; tenggalam, to sink; tugal, to sow rice by putting seeds into holes made with a sharp stick; galah, a pole; gala-gala, pitch.

If it be correct to assign a Sanskrit origin to all or any of these words, they belong to a much earlier epoch than the comparatively pure Sanskrit words, the importation of which into Malay is the subject now under discussion.

The presence of Sanskrit words in the Malay language was first remarked by Sir William Jones,16 and the subject received more attention at the hands of Marsden, who gives a short list of fifteen words, “taken, with little pains in the selection, from a Malayan dictionary.”17 Many of the Sanskrit words are, as Marsden observes, “such as the progress of civilisation must soon have rendered necessary, being frequently expressive of the feelings of the mind, or denoting those ordinary modes of thought which result from the social habits of mankind, or from the evils that tend to interrupt them.” This assertion might have been put in more forcible terms had it occurred to the author to include not only words expressive of thought and feelings, but even some signifying natural objects, though doubtless most of these are expressed by aboriginal words. Hari, day, is clearly identical with the Sanskrit hari, “the sun,” which is also used as a name of Vishnu or Krishna. Mata-hari, the sun (Malay), is thus “the eye of Hari,” and is a compound formed of the native word mata and the Sanskrit hari. Halilintar, a thunderbolt, seems to be compounded similarly of hari and lontar (to hurl), “hurled by Hari.” Here the r has been softened into l. The Sanskrit kapala has almost entirely superseded the use of the old native word ulu or hulu, the head; the latter, however, is found in composition with a Sanskrit word in the substantive hulubalang, a war-chief, from hulu, head, and bala, an army.

The extent to which the Malays are indebted to Sanskrit for words to express the human body and members is shown in the following list:—

English. Malay. Sanskrit. Other Languages18 The body salîra çarîra

J. sarira; Bat. sorira.

Limb, member, body

anggûta angga J. ongga.

Form, appearance

rûpa rûpa

J., S., Bat., Mak., and Bu. rupa.

Joint sendi saṃdhi

S. sandi; D. sandik, bound; Tag. and Bis. sandig, unite.

Head kapâla

kapâla (the skull)

J., S., D., Mak. kapala, chief; Bat. kapala, thick.

Tongue lîdah

lih (to lick), lîdha (licked)

J. lidah; Bat. dila; Mak. and Bu. lila; D. jela; Tag. and Bis. dila.

Pulse nâdî

nâḍî (artery, vein, intestine)

Shoulder bâhû

bâhu (the arm)

J. bahu; S. and D. baha.

Hair of the body

rôma roman Foot pâda pâda Kw. pada.

Time and its division and measurement have supplied a number of Sanskrit terms to the Malay language, most of which are so necessary in everyday life that it is difficult to conceive the poverty of a dialect which contained no words to express them. The following list contains the greater number of them:—

English. Malay. Sanskrit. Other Languages. Time kâla, kâli kâla J. and S. kala. When tatkâla

tad (this) kâla

Time, period

katika

ghatikâ (a division of time)

Bat. katika; D. katika.

Time, period, hour

dewâsa

divasa (a day)

J. diwasa, adult; Mak. rewusa.

Just now tâdî

tad (this, that)

S. tadi. Day hârî

hari (the sun)

J. and B. hari.

Day dîna dina J. dina. Dawn dînahârî

from dina and hari

Evening, sunset

senja, or senja- kala

saṃdhyâ (twilight)

Bat. sonja; J. chandik-kala, evg. twilight.

Always santîasa nityaças J. nityasa.

Old, former

sadîa

Former time

sadîa-kâla

sâdhya (from sâdh, to finish, accomplish)

Continually sada-kâla

sâda (perishing)

Time (when)

bîla velâ

Time, season, period

mâsa

mâsa (month)

J. and S. mangsa; Tag. masa.

Another group of Sanskrit words found in Malay is that comprising articles of commerce, weights and measures, &c. Their presence suffices without other evidence to show that for their knowledge of the commercial value of many products the East Indian islanders were indebted to traders from Hindustan, who, indeed, probably introduced not only the names of, but the use of, their weights and measures. Buah pala, the Malay phrase for the “nutmeg,” is in strictness a pleonasm, for phala signifies “fruit” in Sanskrit, as buah does in Malay.

TERMS OF COMMERCE.

English. Malay. Sanskrit. Other Languages. Nutmeg pâla

phala (fruit)

J. and S. pala. Clove lawang lavaṃga Eagle-wood găhârû aguru

J., S., and Mak. garu; D. garo, perfume.

Camphor

kâpur, kâpur bârus

karpûra

J., S., and D. kapur-barus; Mak. kaporo barusu

Sandalwood chandâna chandana

J. and S. chendana; Tag. and Bis. sandana

Musk kastûrî kastûrî

J. and S. kasturi; Mak. kasaturi; Tag, and Bis. kastoli.

Charcoal ârang aṅgâra

J. and S. areng; S. arang; Bat. agong; D. aring; Tag. and Bis. oling.

Sugar gûla

guḍa (molasses)

J., S., and D. gula; Mak. golla.

Saltpetre sandâwa

saindhava (rocksalt)

J. sendawa; S. chindawa.

Silk sûtra

sûtra (thread, fibre)

J. and S. sutra; Bat. suntora; Mak; and Bu. sutara; Tag. sutla.

Cotton kâpas karpâsa

J., S., and D. kapas Bat. hapas; Mak. kapasa; Bis. gapas.

Gunny-bag gônî goṇi S. goné Price harga argha

S. and Bat. harga; J. and D. rega; Mak. angga; Tag. and Bis. halaga.

Profit lâba lâbha

Kw., Bat., Mak., and D. laba; Tag. and Bis. laba, increase, usury.

Scales for weighing

narâcha

nârâchî (a gold smith’s scales)

Kw. naracha; J. and S. traju

A bhar (native weight = 3 pikuls)

băhâra

bhâra (a load, a weight)

Kw. and Mak. bara 100 millions: Bis. bala, to load on the back.

A cubit hasta hasta J. and S. asta.

A number, figure

ângka

aṅka (a mark, a cipher)

J. ongka; S., Mak., Bu., and D. angka.

Ten thousand

laksa

laksha (100,000)

J. leksa; S., D., Tag. and Bis. laksa; Bat. loksa; Mak., lassa.

A million jûta

ayuta (10,000)

J. and S. yuta.

Many of the metals and most of the precious stones are known to the Malays by their Sanskrit names, even those which are found in Malay countries.

English. Malay. Sanskrit. Other Languages. Gold

âmas, mas

mas (to mete, to measure)

J. emas; S. mas; Bat. omas; D. amas; Tag. and Bis. amas, gold, weight.

Gold kanchâna kânchana

Kw. and S. kanchana.

Copper tambâga tâmra

J. tembaga; S. tambaga; Bat. tombaga; Mak. tambaga; Tag. and Bis. tumbaga.

Tin tîmah tîvra

J., S., and D. timah; Bat. simbora; Mak. timbera; Tag. and Bis. tingga.

Quicksilver râsa rasa

J., S., Mak., and D. rasa.

Pinchbeck suwâsa

suvarchasa (brilliant)

J., S., Bat., and Mak. suwasa.

Glass kâcha kâcha

J., S., Mak., and Bu. kacha; D. kacha; and kasa; Tag. kasa, blue and green stone.

Mica

âbrak19

abhra (amber, talc)

Crystal golega

golaka (globule)

Jewel, precious stone

mânî maṇi J. mani. Do. mânikam maṇika

Kw. and S. manikem; Mak. manikang.

Do. kamâla

kamala (lotus)

Kw. kuma‘a; Bat. humala, snake-stone.

Sapphire

nîlam (nîla, blue)

nîla (blue)

J. and S. nila; Mak. nyila, blue.

Opal bidûri

vidûra (a mountain which produces lapis lazuli)

Ruby dalîma

dâlima (pomegranate)

Jewel, brilliant

mustîka

mushtika (goldsmith)

Topaze pusparâgam pushparâga Pearl

mutia, mutiara

muktâ

Jewel, precious stone

permâta

paramata (excellence)

Kw. pramati, a very beautiful object.

Jewels of five kinds

panchalôgam

panchaloha (five metals)

The implements, utensils, instruments, &c., the names of which, if not the things themselves, the Malay races have borrowed from their Indian conquerors and rulers, are as follows:—

English. Malay. Sanskrit. Other Languages. A lock kunchî

kunchikâ (a key)

J., S., and D. kunchi; Bat. hunsi; Mak. konchi.

A bell ganta ghaṇṭâ

J. and S. genta; Bat. gonta; D. ganta; Mak. garaganta.

A water vessel kindî kuṇḍî J. and S. kendi. A net jâla jâla

J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. jala.

A box petî

peṭî (basket, bag)

S. peti; Mak. patti; D. pati.

Name of a sword

chora

kshura (a razor)

A plough tanggâla hala

Bat. tinggala; Mak. nangkala.

Chess châtur

chatur (four)

J. and S. chatur. Dice jûdî

dyûta (game at dice)

J. judi; Bat. juji.

A saw gargâjî krakacha

J. graji; S. gergaji; Bat. and Mak. garagaji.

An awl jâra ârâ J. and S. jara. A coffin karanda

karanda (basket)

Bat. hurondo.

Royal umbrella

chatrâ chhattra

Salver with a pedestal

charâna

charaṇa (a foot)

S. charana; Bat. sarano; D. sarana.

A wheel jantrâ

yantra (an engine or machine)

J. jontra; S. jantra. Chariot râta ratha J. rata.

Lyre, lute

kechâpî kachchhapi

S. kachapi; Bat. husapi; D. kasapi.

Flute bangsî vançî

Pipe, flute

mûri muralî

The terms of adulation common in India in the mouths of inferiors addressing superiors have no equivalents in Malay. It is noticeable, however, that some of the most ordinary Malay phrases of politeness are Sanskrit. Tâbek (J. and S. tabé; Bat. santabi; Mak. tabeya; D. tabi; Tag. and Bis. tabi; Tag. santabi, to show respect), which corresponds to the Indian salaam in communications between Europeans and Malays, means properly “pardon,” and is derived from the Sanskrit kshantavya, excusable; sîla, to sit cross-legged20 (the respectful attitude indoors), is the Sanskrit çîl, to meditate, to worship; and sîla, a Malay term of politeness, which in some respects answers to our “if you please,” but which also means “to invite,” has its origin in the Sanskrit word çîla, good conduct, moral practice. The same language, too, supplies a considerable number of words denoting family and relationship:—