GLOBALISATION OF BUSINESS, Syed Sajid [reading in the dark .txt] 📗

versus ideas. Constructivism is not a theory of IR in the manner of neo-realism, but is instead a social theory which is used to better explain the actions taken by states and other major actors as well as the identities that guide these states and actors.
Constructivism in IR can be divided into what Hopf (1998) calls 'conventional' and 'critical' constructivism. Common to all varieties of constructivism is an interest in the role that ideational forces play. The most famous constructivist scholar, Alexander Wendt noted in a 1992 article in International Organization (later followed up by a book, Social Theory of International Politics (1999)), that "anarchy is what states make of it". By this he means that the anarchical structure that neo-realists claim governs state interaction is in fact a phenomenon that is socially constructed and reproduced by states.
For example, if the system is dominated by states that see anarchy as a life or death situation (what Wendt terms a "Hobbesian" anarchy) then the system will be characterised by warfare. If on the other hand anarchy is seen as restricted (a "Lockean" anarchy) then a more peaceful system will exist. Anarchy in this view is constituted by state interaction, rather than accepted as a natural and immutable feature of international life as viewed by neo-realist IR scholars.

Critical Theory
Critical international relations theory is the application of 'critical theory' to international relations. Proponents such as Andrew Linklater, Robert W. Cox and Ken Booth focus on the need for humanemancipation from States. Hence, it is "critical" of mainstream IR theories that tend to be state-centric.
Marxism
Marxist and Neo-Marxist theories of IR reject the realist/liberal view of state conflict or cooperation; instead focusing on the economic and material aspects. It makes the assumption that the economy trumps other concerns; allowing for the elevation of class as the focus of study. Marxists view the international system as an integrated capitalist system in pursuit of capital accumulation. Thus, the period of colonialism brought in sources for raw materials and captive markets for exports, while decolonialization brought new opportunities in the form of dependence.
Linked in with Marxist theories is dependency theory which argues that developed countries, in their pursuit of power, penetrate developing states through political advisors, missionaries, experts, and MNCs to integrate them into the capitalist system in order to appropriate natural resources and foster dependence.
Marxist theories receive scant attention in the United States where no significant socialist party ever existed. It is more common in parts of Europe and is one of the most important theoretic contributions of Latin American academia, for example through Liberation theology.

Leadership Theories
Interest Group perspective
Interest Group theory posits that the driving force behind state behavior is sub-state interest groups. Examples of interest groups include political lobbyists, the military, and the corporate sector. Group theory argues that although these interest groups are constitutive of the state, they are also causal forces in the exercise of state power.]Strategic Perspective
Strategic Perspective is a theoretical approach that views individuals as choosing their actions by taking into account the anticipated actions and responses of others with the intention of maximizing their own welfare.
Inherent bad faith model in international relations and political psychology
The "inherent bad faith model" of information processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles’ beliefs and his model of information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent. A state is presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of this are ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles’ position regarding the Soviet Union, or Israel’s initial position on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.


Management and sociology

Inspired by Vilfredo Pareto's seminal book Mind and Society , Barnard applied his theories of sociology to management studies. The papers here were both influential and controversial, in that Barnard concluded that human behavior in workplace settings was largely non-economic and approached ritualistic symbolism.

The program combines the Management and Organization department’s expertise in organization theory with the Sociology department’s strengths in economic, comparative-historical and cultural sociology. The joint program attracts students who want to study business and non-profit organizations using a sociological perspective, or who wish to apply management and organizational theory to core problems in sociology such as social movements, the production of culture, social structure, gender and race inequality. It is also an attractive option for students that seek to study topics in a rigorous way, at the intersection of economy and society, such as social enterprise, globalization and economic development.
The joint program’s research and career advantages build on the possibilities that come with applying disciplinary training to the new intellectual space between management and sociological theory. The formal degree synthesizes competencies of both programs, creates formal connections that facilitate a student’s access to faculty and department resources in a way that would be difficult through an informal sampling of courses; and furnishes students with an expanded choice of career and research options in professional schools and schools of arts and sciences.
Sociology of Law
New Perspectives on Gender in Society
Sociology of Culture
Economic Sociology
Comparative and Historical Sociology
Stratification, Race and Gender
Social Organization
Topics in Sociological Analysis (can be repeated for credit)
The Individual and the Organization
Social Processes in Organizations

Management consultancy is a key sector in the economic change toward a service and knowledge economy. explains the mechanisms of the management consulting market and the management of consulting firms from both economic and sociological perspectives. It also examines the strategies, marketing approaches, knowledge management and human resource management techniques of consulting firms. After outlining the relationships between transaction cost economics, signaling theory, embeddedness theory and sociological neoinstitutionalism, Thomas Armbrüster applies these theories to central questions such as: Why does the consulting sector exist and grow? Which institutions connect supply and demand? And which factors influence the relationship between clients and consultants? By applying both economic and sociological approaches, explains the general economic changes of the previous thirty years and sharpens the relationship between the academic disciplines.


II. GLOBALISATION OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

BASIC EXPLANATION:

An International Business Is A Business Whose Activities Are Carried Out Across national borders. This different from domestic business because A domestic business is a business whose activities are carried out with in the borders its geographical locations
THE MARKETING STRATEGIES OF THESE KIND OF BUSINESS DEPENDS ON THE NATURE OF THE BUSINESS INVOLVEMENT. FROM THE BEGINNING, THE DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO MARKETS ARE OBVIOUS FROM THE POINT OF THEIR MARKET HOST AND DEMAND DOMAIN.

DOMESTIC MARKETING:

There are four guiding principles that derives the marketing strategy
Knowledge Based Promotion
Building Loyalty
Parameters Not Formulas
Meeting the Genuine nee

INTERNATIONAL MARKETING:

International marketing goes beyond exporting and calls for direct involvement in the local marketing environment within a given country
Understanding different

DRIVING BUSINESS FORCES

There are five kinds of drivers, all based on change, that are leading international firms to the globalization of their operations.

Political
Technological
Market
Cost
Competitive
As a old saying goes, “everything starts in a small step”, this quote should be retain in the business’s mind as the start of the business cycle. It only means that the business should start in a way where the people behind it will learn to solve problems in a small little way. People that doing the strategic approaches, dictates the outcomes of the business, only because they assume and formulated the various outcomes of it.

Changes in the international economy
International economics is growing in importance as a field of study because of the rapid integration of international economic markets. Increasingly, businesses, consumers, and governments realize that their lives are affected not only by what goes on in their own town, state, or country but also by what is happening around the world. Consumers can walk into their local shops today and buy goods and services from all over the world. Local businesses must compete with these foreign products. However, many of these same businesses also have new opportunities to expand their markets by selling to a multitude of consumers in other countries. The advance of telecommunications is also rapidly reducing the cost of providing services internationally, while the Internet will assuredly change the nature of many products and services as it expands markets even further.
One simple way to see the rising importance of international economics is to look at the growth of exports in the world during the past fifty or more years.Figure 1.1, “World Exports, 1948–2008 (in Billions of U.S. Dollars)” shows the overall annual exports measured in billions of U.S. dollars from 1948 to 2008. Recognizing that one country’s exports are another country’s imports, one can see the exponential growth in outflows and inflows during the past fifty years.
Figure 1.1. World Exports, 1948–2008 (in Billions of U.S. Dollars)


However, rapid growth in the value of exports does not necessarily indicate that trade is becoming more important. A better method is to look at the share of traded goods in relation to the size of the world economy. Figure 1.2, “World Exports, 1970–2008 (Percentage of World GDP)” shows world exports as a percentage of the world gross domestic product (GDP) for the years 1970 to 2008. It shows a steady increase in trade as a share of the size of the world economy. World exports grew from just over 10 percent of the GDP in 1970 to over 30 percent by 2008. Thus trade is not only rising rapidly in absolute terms; it is becoming relatively more important too.
Figure 1.2. World Exports, 1970–2008 (Percentage of World GDP)


One other indicator of world interconnectedness can be seen in changes in the amount of foreign direct investment (FDI). FDI is foreign ownership of productive activities and thus is another way in which foreign economic influence can affect a country. Figure 1.3, “World Inward FDI Stocks, 1980–2007 (Percentage of World GDP)” shows the stock, or the sum total value, of FDI around the world taken as a percentage of the world GDP between 1980 and 2007. It gives an indication of the importance of foreign ownership and influence around the world. As can be seen, the share of FDI has grown dramatically from around 5 percent of the world GDP in 1980 to over 25 percent of the GDP just twenty-five years later.
Figure 1.3. World Inward FDI Stocks, 1980–2007 (Percentage of World GDP)


The growth of international trade and investment has been stimulated partly by the steady decline of trade barriers since the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the post–World War II era, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, or GATT, prompted regular negotiations among a growing body of members to reciprocally reduce tariffs (import taxes) on imported goods. During each of these regular negotiations (eight of these rounds were completed between 1948 and 1994), countries promised to reduce their tariffs on imports in exchange for concessions—that means tariff reductions—by other GATT members. When the Uruguay Round, the most recently completed round, was finalized in 1994, the member countries succeeded in extending the agreement to include liberalization promises in a much larger sphere of influence. Now countries not only would lower tariffs on goods trade but also would begin to liberalize the agriculture and services markets. They would eliminate the many quota systems—like the multifiber agreement in clothing—that had sprouted up in previous decades. And they would agree to adhere to certain minimum standards to protect intellectual property rights such as patents, trademarks, and copyrights. The World Trade Organization (WTO) was created to manage this system of new agreements, to provide a forum for regular discussion of trade matters,