Approaching Zero, Paul Mungo [good summer reads TXT] 📗
- Author: Paul Mungo
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he told the youngsters. “This thing’s illegal.”
But the blind kids were already into phreaking in a big way. They had already
discovered the potential of the Cap’n Crunch plastic whistle, and had even
found that to make it hit the 2600cycle tone every time, all it needed was a
drop of glue on the outlet hole.
Draper began to supply blue boxes to clients—generally unsighted youngsters—
in the Bay Area and beyond. He was also fascinated by the little whistle, and
early the next year, when he took a month’s vacation in England, he took one
with him. When a friend rang him from the States, Draper blew the little toy
into the phone, sending the 2600cycle “on-hook” (hanging-up) signal to the
caller’s local office in America. The “on-hook” tone signified that the call
had been terminated, and the U.S. office—where billing was originated—stopped
racking up toll charges. But because the British phone system didn’t respond to
the 2600cycle whistle, the connection was maintained, and Draper could continue the conversation for free. He only used the whistle once in England, but
the incident became part of phreaker legend and gave Draper his alias.
While in Britain, Draper received a stream of transatlantic calls from his
blind friends. One of them, who lived in New York, had
discovered that Bell engineers had a special code to dial England to check the
new international directdial system, which was just coming on-line. The access
code was 182, followed by a number in Britain. All of the calls placed in this
way were free. The discovery spread rapidly among the phreaker community;
everyone wanted to try directdialing to England, but since no one knew anyone
there, Draper was the recipient of most of the calls.
This was, of course, long before the days when people would routinely make
international calls. Even in America, where the phone culture was at its most
developed, no one would casually pick up a telephone and call a friend halfway
across the world. An international call, particularly a transatlantic call, was
an event, and if families had relatives abroad, they would probably phone them
only once a year, usually at Christmas. The call could easily take half a day
to get through, the whole family would take turns talking, and everyone would
shout—in those days, perhaps in awe of the great distance their voices were
being carried, international callers always shouted. It would take another two
decades before transatlantic calls became as commonplace as ringing across the
country.
Naturally the British GPO (General Post Office), who ran the U.K. telephone
system in those days, became somewhat suspicious of a vacationer who routinely
received five or six calls a day from the United States. They began monitoring
Draper’s line; then investigators were sent to interview him. They wanted to
know why he had been receiving so many calls from across the Atlantic. He
replied that he was on holiday and that he supposed he was popular, but the
investigators were unimpressed. Draper immediately contacted his friends in
America and said, “No more.”
At about this time, Draper had become the king of phreakers. He had rigged up a
VW van with a switchboard and a high-tech MF-er and roamed the highways in
California looking for isolated telephone booths. He would often spend hours at
these telephones, sending calls around the world, bouncing them off
communications satellites, leapfrogging them from the West Coast to London to
Moscow to Sydney and then back again.
The Captain also liked to stack up tandems, which are the instruments that send
the whistling tone from one switching office to another. What the Captain would
do is shoot from one tandem right across the country to another, then back
again to a third tandem, stacking them up as he went back and forth, once
reportedly shooting across America twenty times. Then he might bounce the call
over to a more exotic place, such as a phone box in London’s Victoria Station,
or to the American embassy in Moscow. He didn’t have anything to say to the
startled commuter who happened to pick up the phone at Victoria, or to the
receptionist at the embassy in Moscow—that wasn’t the point. Sometimes he
simply asked about the weather.
The unit he carried in the back of the van was computer operated, and Draper was
proud of the fact that it was more powerful and faster than the phone company’s
own equipment. It could, he claimed, “do extraordinary things,” and the
vagueness of the statement only added to the mystique.
Once, making a call around the world, he sent a call to Tokyo, which connected
him to India, then Greece, then South Africa, South America, and London, which
put him through to New York, which connected him to an L.A. operator—who
dialed the number of the phone booth next to the one he was using. He had to
shout to hear himself but, he claimed, the echo was “far out.” Another time,
using two phone booths located side by side, Draper sent his voice one way
around the world from one of the telephones to the other, and simultaneously
from the second phone booth he placed a call via satellite in the other
direction back to the first phone. The trick had absolutely no practical value,
but the Captain was much more interested in the mechanics of telecommunications
than in actually calling anyone. “I’m learning about a system,” he once said.
“The phone company is a system, a computer is a system. Computers and systems—
that’s my bag.”
But by this time the Captain was only stating the obvious. To advanced
phreakers the system linking the millions of phones around the world—that
spider’s web of lines, loops, and tandems—was infinitely more interesting than
anything they would ever hope to see. Most of the phreakers were technology
junkies anyway, the sort of kids who took apart radios to see how they worked,
who played with electronics when they were older, and who naturally progressed
to exploring the phone system, if only because it was the biggest and best
piece of technology they could lay their hands on. And the growing awareness
that they were liberating computer technology from Ma Bell made their hobby
even more exciting.
In time even Mark Bernay, who had helped spread phone phreaking across America,
found that his interests were changing. By 1969, he had settled in the Pacific
Northwest and was working as a computer programmer in a company with access to
a large time-share mainframe—a central computer accessed by telephone that was
shared among hundreds of smaller companies. Following normal practice, each
user had his own log-in—identification code, or ID—and password, which he
would need to type in before being allowed access to the computer’s files. Even
then, to prevent companies from seeing each other’s data, users were confined
to their own sectors of the computer.
But Bernay quickly tired of this arrangement. He wrote a program that allowed
him to read everyone else’s ID and password, which he then used to enter the
other sectors, and he began leaving messages for users in their files, signing
them “The Midnight Skulker.” He didn’t particularly want to get caught, but he
did want to impress others with what he could do; he wanted some sort of
reaction. When the computer operators changed the passwords, Bernay quickly
found another way to access them. He left clues about his identity in certain
files, and even wrote a program that, if activated, would destroy his own
passwordcatching program. He wanted to play, to have his original program
destroyed so that he could write another one to undo what he had, in effect,
done to himself, and then reappear. But the management refused to play. So he
left more clues, all signed by “The Midnight Skulker.”
Eventually the management reacted: they interrogated everyone who had access to
the mainframe, and inevitably, one of Bernay’s colleagues fingered him. Bernay
was fired.
When Rosenbaum wrote his article in 1971 the practice of breaking into
computers was so new and so bizarre, it didn’t even have a name. Rosenbaum
called it computer freaking—thef used to distinguish it from ordinary phone
phreaking. But what was being described was the birth of hacking.
It was Draper, alias Captain Crunch, who, while serving a jail sentence,
unintentionally spread the techniques of phreaking and hacking to the
underworld—the real underworld of criminals and drug dealers. Part of the
reason Draper went to jail, he now says, was because of the Esquire article: “I
knew I was in trouble as soon as I read it.” As a direct result of the article,
five states set up grand juries to investigate phone phreaking and,
incidentally, Captain Crunch’s part in it. The authorities also began to
monitor Draper’s movements and the phones he used. He was first arrested in
1972, about a year after the article appeared, while phreaking a call to
Sydney, Australia. Typically, he wasn’t actually speaking to anyone; he had
called up a number that played a recording of the Australian Top Ten.
Four years later he was convicted and sent to Lompoc Federal Prison in
California for two months, which was where the criminal classes first learned
the details of his techniques. It was, he says, a matter of life or death. As
soon as he was inside, he was asked to cooperate and was badly beaten up when
he refused. He realized that in order to survive, he would have to share his
knowledge. In jail, he figured, it was too easy to get killed. “It happens all
the time. There are just too many members of the ‘Five Hundred Club,’ guys who
spend most of their time pumping iron and lifting five-hundred-pound weights,”
he says.
So he picked out the top dog, the biggest, meanest, and strongest inmate, as
his protector. But in return Draper had to tell what he knew. Every day he gave
his protector a tutorial about phreaking: how to set up secure loops, or
eavesdrop on other telephone conversations. Every day the information was
passed on to people who could put it to use on the outside. Draper remains
convinced that the techniques that are still used by drug runners for computer
surveillance of federal agents can be traced back to his tutorials.
But criminals were far from the only group to whom Draper’s skills appealed.
Rosenbaum’s 1971 article introduced Americans for the first time to a new
high-tech counterculture that had grown up in their midst, a group of
technology junkies that epitomized the ethos of the new decade. As the sixties
ended, and the seventies began, youth culture—that odd mix of music, fashion,
and adolescent posturing—had become hardened and more radical. Woodstock had
succumbed to Altamont; Haight-Ashbury to political activism; the Berkeley Free
Speech Movement to the Weathermen and the Students for a Democratic Society.
Playing with Ma Bell’s phone system was too intriguing to be dismissed as just
a simple technological game. It was seen as an attack on corporate America—or
“Amerika,” as it was often spelt then to suggest an incipient Nazism within the
state—and phreaking, a mostly apolitical pastime, was adopted by the radical
movement. It was an odd mix, the high-tech junkies alongside the theatrical
revolutionaries of the far left, but they were all part of the counterculture.
Draper himself was adopted by the guru of the whole revolutionary movement.
Shortly after his arrest, he was contacted by Abbie Hoffman, the cofounder of
the Youth International Party Line (YIPL). Hoffman invited Draper to attend the
group’s 1972 national convention in Miami and offered to organize a campaign
fund for his defense.
At the time Hoffman was the best-known political activist in America. An
anti-Vietnam war campai~ner, a defendant in the Chicago Seven trial,
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