A History of Science, vol 4, Henry Smith Williams [best books to read in life txt] 📗
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susceptibility to various maladies, and that the virus of a given
disease may become more and more virulent when passed through the
systems of successive individuals of one species, and,
contrariwise, less and less virulent when passed through the
systems of successive individuals of another species. These facts
suggested the theory that the blood of resistant animals might
contain something directly antagonistic to the virus, and the
hope that this something might be transferred with curative
effect to the blood of an infected susceptible animal. Numerous
experimenters all over the world made investigations along the
line of this alluring possibility, the leaders perhaps being Drs.
Behring and Kitasato, closely followed by Dr. Roux and his
associates of the Pasteur Institute of Paris. Definite results
were announced by Behring in 1892 regarding two important
diseases—tetanus and diphtheria—but the method did not come
into general notice until 1894, when Dr. Roux read an
epoch-making paper on the subject at the Congress of Hygiene at
Buda-Pesth.
In this paper Dr. Roux, after adverting to the labors of Behring,
Ehrlich, Boer, Kossel, and Wasserman, described in detail the
methods that had been developed at the Pasteur Institute for the
development of the curative serum, to which Behring had given the
since-familiar name antitoxine. The method consists, first, of
the cultivation, for some months, of the diphtheria bacillus
(called the Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, in honor of its discoverers)
in an artificial bouillon, for the development of a powerful
toxine capable of giving the disease in a virulent form.
This toxine, after certain details of mechanical treatment, is
injected in small but increasing doses into the system of an
animal, care being taken to graduate the amount so that the
animal does not succumb to the disease. After a certain course of
this treatment it is found that a portion of blood serum of the
animal so treated will act in a curative way if injected into the
blood of another animal, or a human patient, suffering with
diphtheria. In other words, according to theory, an antitoxine
has been developed in the system of the animal subjected to the
progressive inoculations of the diphtheria toxine. In Dr. Roux’s
experience the animal best suited for the purpose is the horse,
though almost any of the domesticated animals will serve the
purpose.
But Dr. Roux’s paper did not stop with the description of
laboratory methods. It told also of the practical application of
the serum to the treatment of numerous cases of diphtheria in the
hospitals of Paris—applications that had met with a gratifying
measure of success. He made it clear that a means had been found
of coping successfully with what had been one of the most
virulent and intractable of the diseases of childhood. Hence it
was not strange that his paper made a sensation in all circles,
medical and lay alike.
Physicians from all over the world flocked to Paris to learn the
details of the open secret, and within a few months the new
serum-therapy had an acknowledged standing with the medical
profession everywhere. What it had accomplished was regarded as
but an earnest of what the new method might accomplish presently
when applied to the other infectious diseases.
Efforts at such applications were immediately begun in numberless
directions—had, indeed, been under way in many a laboratory for
some years before. It is too early yet to speak of the results in
detail. But enough has been done to show that this method also is
susceptible of the widest generalization. It is not easy at the
present stage to sift that which is tentative from that which
will be permanent; but so great an authority as Behring does not
hesitate to affirm that today we possess, in addition to the
diphtheria antitoxine, equally specific antitoxines of tetanus,
cholera, typhus fever, pneumonia, and tuberculosis—a set of
diseases which in the aggregate account for a startling
proportion of the general death-rate. Then it is known that Dr.
Yersin, with the collaboration of his former colleagues of the
Pasteur Institute, has developed, and has used with success, an
antitoxine from the microbe of the plague which recently ravaged
China.
Dr. Calmette, another graduate of the Pasteur Institute, has
extended the range of the serum-therapy to include the prevention
and treatment of poisoning by venoms, and has developed an
antitoxine that has already given immunity from the lethal
effects of snake bites to thousands of persons in India and
Australia.
Just how much of present promise is tentative, just what are the
limits of the methods—these are questions for the future to
decide. But, in any event, there seems little question that the
serum treatment will stand as the culminating achievement in
therapeutics of our century. It is the logical outgrowth of those
experimental studies with the microscope begun by our
predecessors of the thirties, and it represents the present
culmination of the rigidly experimental method which has brought
medicine from a level of fanciful empiricism to the plane of a
rational experimental science.
IX. THE NEW SCIENCE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
BRAIN AND MINDA little over a hundred years ago a reform movement was afoot in
the world in the interests of the insane. As was fitting, the
movement showed itself first in America, where these unfortunates
were humanely cared for at a time when their treatment elsewhere
was worse than brutal; but England and France quickly fell into
line. The leader on this side of the water was the famous
Philadelphian, Dr. Benjamin Rush, “the Sydenham of America”; in
England, Dr. William Tuke inaugurated the movement; and in
France, Dr. Philippe Pinel, single-handed, led the way. Moved by
a common spirit, though acting quite independently, these men
raised a revolt against the traditional custom which, spurning
the insane as demon-haunted outcasts, had condemned these
unfortunates to dungeons, chains, and the lash. Hitherto few
people had thought it other than the natural course of events
that the “maniac” should be thrust into a dungeon, and perhaps
chained to the wall with the aid of an iron band riveted
permanently about his neck or waist. Many an unfortunate, thus
manacled, was held to the narrow limits of his chain for years
together in a cell to which full daylight never penetrated;
sometimes—iron being expensive—the chain was so short that the
wretched victim could not rise to the upright posture or even
shift his position upon his squalid pallet of straw.
In America, indeed, there being no Middle Age precedents to
crystallize into established customs, the treatment accorded the
insane had seldom or never sunk to this level. Partly for this
reason, perhaps, the work of Dr. Rush at the Philadelphia
Hospital, in 1784, by means of which the insane came to be
humanely treated, even to the extent of banishing the lash, has
been but little noted, while the work of the European leaders,
though belonging to later decades, has been made famous. And
perhaps this is not as unjust as it seems, for the step which
Rush took, from relatively bad to good, was a far easier one to
take than the leap from atrocities to good treatment which the
European reformers were obliged to compass. In Paris, for
example, Pinel was obliged to ask permission of the authorities
even to make the attempt at liberating the insane from their
chains, and, notwithstanding his recognized position as a leader
of science, he gained but grudging assent, and was regarded as
being himself little better than a lunatic for making so
manifestly unwise and hopeless an attempt. Once the attempt had
been made, however, and carried to a successful issue, the
amelioration wrought in the condition of the insane was so patent
that the fame of Pinel’s work at the Bicetre and the Salpetriere
went abroad apace. It required, indeed, many years to complete it
in Paris, and a lifetime of effort on the part of Pinel’s pupil
Esquirol and others to extend the reform to the provinces; but
the epochal turning-point had been reached with Pinel’s labors of
the closing years of the eighteenth century.
The significance of this wise and humane reform, in the present
connection, is the fact that these studies of the insane gave
emphasis to the novel idea, which by-and-by became accepted as
beyond question, that “demoniacal possession” is in reality no
more than the outward expression of a diseased condition of the
brain. This realization made it clear, as never before, how
intimately the mind and the body are linked one to the other.
And so it chanced that, in striking the shackles from the insane,
Pinel and his confreres struck a blow also, unwittingly, at
time-honored philosophical traditions. The liberation of the
insane from their dungeons was an augury of the liberation of
psychology from the musty recesses of metaphysics. Hitherto
psychology, in so far as it existed at all, was but the
subjective study of individual minds; in future it must become
objective as well, taking into account also the relations which
the mind bears to the body, and in particular to the brain and
nervous system.
The necessity for this collocation was advocated quite as
earnestly, and even more directly, by another worker of this
period, whose studies were allied to those of alienists, and who,
even more actively than they, focalized his attention upon the
brain and its functions. This earliest of specialists in brain
studies was a German by birth but Parisian by adoption, Dr. Franz
Joseph Gall, originator of the since-notorious system of
phrenology. The merited disrepute into which this system has
fallen through the exposition of peripatetic charlatans should
not make us forget that Dr. Gall himself was apparently a highly
educated physician, a careful student of the brain and mind
according to the best light of his time, and, withal, an earnest
and honest believer in the validity of the system he had
originated. The system itself, taken as a whole, was hopelessly
faulty, yet it was not without its latent germ of truth, as later
studies were to show. How firmly its author himself believed in
it is evidenced by the paper which he contributed to the French
Academy of Sciences in 1808. The paper itself was referred to a
committee of which Pinel and Cuvier were members. The verdict of
this committee was adverse, and justly so; yet the system
condemned had at least one merit which its detractors failed to
realize. It popularized the conception that the brain is the
organ of mind. Moreover, by its insistence it rallied about it a
band of scientific supporters, chief of whom was Dr. Kaspar
Spurzlieim, a man of no mean abilities, who became the
propagandist of phrenology in England and in America. Of course
such advocacy and popularity stimulated opposition as well, and
out of the disputations thus arising there grew presently a
general interest in the brain as the organ of mind, quite aside
from any preconceptions whatever as to the doctrines of Gall and
Spurzheim.
Prominent among the unprejudiced class of workers who now
appeared was the brilliant young Frenchman Louis Antoine
Desmoulins, who studied first under the tutorage of the famous
Magendie, and published jointly with him a classical work on the
nervous system of vertebrates in 1825. Desmoulins made at least
one discovery of epochal importance. He observed that the brains
of persons dying in old age were lighter than the average and
gave visible evidence of atrophy, and he reasoned that such decay
is a normal accompaniment of senility. No one nowadays would
question the accuracy of this observation, but the scientific
world was not quite ready for it in 1825; for when Desmoulins
announced his discovery to the French Academy, that august and
somewhat patriarchal body was moved to quite unscientific wrath,
and forbade the young iconoclast the privilege of further
hearings. From which it is evident that the
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