A History of Science, vol 4, Henry Smith Williams [best books to read in life txt] 📗
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Somewhat similar conclusions were reached also by Dr.
Hughlings-Jackson, in England, from his studies of epilepsy. But
no positive evidence was forthcoming until 1861, when Dr. Paul
Broca brought before the Academy of Medicine in Paris a case of
brain lesion which he regarded as having most important bearings
on the question of cerebral localization.
The case was that of a patient at the Bicetre, who for twenty
years had been deprived of the power of speech, seemingly through
loss of memory of words. In 1861 this patient died, and an
autopsy revealed that a certain convolution of the left frontal
lobe of his cerebrum had been totally destroyed by disease, the
remainder of his brain being intact. Broca felt that this
observation pointed strongly to a localization of the memory of
words in a definite area of the brain. Moreover, it transpired
that the case was not without precedent. As long ago as 1825 Dr.
Boillard had been led, through pathological studies, to locate
definitely a centre for the articulation of words in the frontal
lobe, and here and there other observers had made tentatives in
the same direction. Boillard had even followed the matter up with
pertinacity, but the world was not ready to listen to him. Now,
however, in the half-decade that followed Broca’s announcements,
interest rose to fever-beat, and through the efforts of Broca,
Boillard, and numerous others it was proved that a veritable
centre having a strange domination over the memory of articulate
words has its seat in the third convolution of the frontal lobe
of the cerebrum, usually in the left hemisphere. That part of the
brain has since been known to the English-speaking world as the
convolution of Broca, a name which, strangely enough, the
discoverer’s compatriots have been slow to accept.
This discovery very naturally reopened the entire subject of
brain localization. It was but a short step to the inference
that there must be other definite centres worth the seeking, and
various observers set about searching for them. In 1867 a clew
was gained by Eckhard, who, repeating a forgotten experiment by
Haller and Zinn of the previous century, removed portions of the
brain cortex of animals, with the result of producing
convulsions. But the really vital departure was made in 1870 by
the German investigators Fritsch and Hitzig, who, by stimulating
definite areas of the cortex of animals with a galvanic current,
produced contraction of definite sets of muscles of the opposite
side of the body. These most important experiments, received at
first with incredulity, were repeated and extended in 1873 by Dr.
David Ferrier, of London, and soon afterwards by a small army of
independent workers everywhere, prominent among whom were Franck
and Pitres in France, Munck and Goltz in Germany, and Horsley and
Schafer in England. The detailed results, naturally enough, were
not at first all in harmony. Some observers, as Goltz, even
denied the validity of the conclusions in toto. But a consensus
of opinion, based on multitudes of experiments, soon placed the
broad general facts for which Fritsch and Hitzig contended beyond
controversy. It was found, indeed, that the cerebral centres of
motor activities have not quite the finality at first ascribed to
them by some observers, since it may often happen that after the
destruction of a centre, with attending loss of function, there
may be a gradual restoration of the lost function, proving that
other centres have acquired the capacity to take the place of the
one destroyed. There are limits to this capacity for
substitution, however, and with this qualification the
definiteness of the localization of motor functions in the
cerebral cortex has become an accepted part of brain physiology.
Nor is such localization confined to motor centres. Later
experiments, particularly of Ferrier and of Munck, proved that
the centres of vision are equally restricted in their location,
this time in the posterior lobes of the brain, and that hearing
has likewise its local habitation. Indeed, there is every reason
to believe that each form of primary sensation is based on
impressions which mainly come to a definitely localized goal in
the brain. But all this, be it understood, has no reference to
the higher forms of intellection. All experiment has proved
futile to localize these functions, except indeed to the extent
of corroborating the familiar fact of their dependence upon the
brain, and, somewhat problematically, upon the anterior lobes of
the cerebrum in particular. But this is precisely what should be
expected, for the clearer insight into the nature of mental
processes makes it plain that in the main these alleged
“faculties” are not in themselves localized. Thus, for example,
the “faculty” of language is associated irrevocably with centres
of vision, of hearing, and of muscular activity, to go no
further, and only becomes possible through the association of
these widely separated centres. The destruction of Broca’s
centre, as was early discovered, does not altogether deprive a
patient of his knowledge of language. He may be totally unable to
speak (though as to this there are all degrees of variation), and
yet may comprehend what is said to him, and be able to read,
think, and even write correctly. Thus it appears that Broca’s
centre is peculiarly bound up with the capacity for articulate
speech, but is far enough from being the seat of the faculty of
language in its entirety.
In a similar way, most of the supposed isolated “faculties” of
higher intellection appear, upon clearer analysis, as complex
aggregations of primary sensations, and hence necessarily
dependent upon numerous and scattered centres. Some “faculties,”
as memory and volition, may be said in a sense to be primordial
endowments of every nerve cell—even of every body cell. Indeed,
an ultimate analysis relegates all intellection, in its
primordial adumbrations, to every particle of living matter. But
such refinements of analysis, after all, cannot hide the fact
that certain forms of higher intellection involve a pretty
definite collocation and elaboration of special sensations. Such
specialization, indeed, seems a necessary accompaniment of mental
evolution. That every such specialized function has its
localized centres of co-ordination, of some such significance as
the demonstrated centres of articulate speech, can hardly be in
doubt—though this, be it understood, is an induction, not as yet
a demonstration. In other words, there is every reason to
believe that numerous “centres,” in this restricted sense, exist
in the brain that have as yet eluded the investigator. Indeed,
the current conception regards the entire cerebral cortex as
chiefly composed of centres of ultimate co-ordination of
impressions, which in their cruder form are received by more
primitive nervous tissues—the basal ganglia, the cerebellum and
medulla, and the spinal cord.
This, of course, is equivalent to postulating the cerebral cortex
as the exclusive seat of higher intellection. This proposition,
however, to which a safe induction seems to lead, is far afield
from the substantiation of the old conception of brain
localization, which was based on faulty psychology and equally
faulty inductions from few premises. The details of Gall’s
system, as propounded by generations of his mostly unworthy
followers, lie quite beyond the pale of scientific discussion.
Yet, as I have said, a germ of truth was there—the idea of
specialization of cerebral functions—and modern investigators
have rescued that central conception from the phrenological
rubbish heap in which its discoverer unfortunately left it
buried.
THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
The common ground of all these various lines of investigations of
pathologist, anatomist, physiologist, physicist, and psychologist
is, clearly, the central nervous system—the spinal cord and the
brain. The importance of these structures as the foci of nervous
and mental activities has been recognized more and more with each
new accretion of knowledge, and the efforts to fathom the secrets
of their intimate structure has been unceasing. For the earlier
students, only the crude methods of gross dissections and
microscopical inspection were available. These could reveal
something, but of course the inner secrets were for the keener
insight of the microscopist alone. And even for him the task of
investigation was far from facile, for the central nervous
tissues are the most delicate and fragile, and on many accounts
the most difficult of manipulation of any in the body.
Special methods, therefore, were needed for this essay, and brain
histology has progressed by fitful impulses, each forward jet
marking the introduction of some ingenious improvement of
mechanical technique, which placed a new weapon in the hands of
the investigators.
The very beginning was made in 1824 by Rolando, who first thought
of cutting chemically hardened pieces of brain tissues into thin
sections for microscopical examination—the basal structure upon
which almost all the later advances have been conducted. Muller
presently discovered that bichromate of potassium in solution
makes the best of fluids for the preliminary preservation and
hardening of the tissues. Stilling, in 1842, perfected the
method by introducing the custom of cutting a series of
consecutive sections of the same tissue, in order to trace nerve
tracts and establish spacial relations. Then from time to time
mechanical ingenuity added fresh details of improvement. It was
found that pieces of hardened tissue of extreme delicacy can be
made better subject to manipulation by being impregnated with
collodion or celloidine and embedded in paraffine. Latterly it
has become usual to cut sections also from fresh tissues,
unchanged by chemicals, by freezing them suddenly with vaporized
ether or, better, carbonic acid. By these methods, and with the
aid of perfected microtomes, the worker of recent periods avails
himself of sections of brain tissues of a tenuousness which the
early investigators could not approach.
But more important even than the cutting of thin sections is the
process of making the different parts of the section visible, one
tissue differentiated from another. The thin section, as the
early workers examined it, was practically colorless, and even
the crudest details of its structure were made out with extreme
difficulty. Remak did, indeed, manage to discover that the brain
tissue is cellular, as early as 1833, and Ehrenberg in the same
year saw that it is also fibrillar, but beyond this no great
advance was made until 1858, when a sudden impulse was received
from a new process introduced by Gerlach. The process itself was
most simple, consisting essentially of nothing more than the
treatment of a microscopical section with a solution of carmine.
But the result was wonderful, for when such a section was placed
under the lens it no longer appeared homogeneous. Sprinkled
through its substance were seen irregular bodies that had taken
on a beautiful color, while the matrix in which they were
embedded remained unstained. In a word, the central nerve cell
had sprung suddenly into clear view.
A most interesting body it proved, this nerve cell, or ganglion
cell, as it came to be called. It was seen to be exceedingly
minute in size, requiring high powers of the microscope to make
it visible. It exists in almost infinite numbers, not, however,
scattered at random through the brain and spinal cord. On the
contrary, it is confined to those portions of the central nervous
masses which to the naked eye appear gray in color, being
altogether wanting in the white substance which makes up the
chief mass of the brain. Even in the gray matter, though
sometimes thickly distributed, the ganglion cells are never in
actual contact one with another; they always lie embedded in
intercellular tissues, which came to be known, following Virchow,
as the neuroglia.
Each ganglion cell was seen to be irregular in contour, and to
have jutting out from it two sets of minute fibres, one set
relatively short, indefinitely numerous, and branching in every
direction; the other set limited in number, sometimes even
single, and starting out directly from the cell as if bent on a
longer journey. The numerous filaments came to be known
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