International Language, Walter J. Clark [popular books of all time txt] 📗
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1Destroy. Nothing = neni‑o; suf. -ig denotes causation. 2No matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every one's.
Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis jam du aŭ tri grandajn arbojn, kaj ĝis nun prosperis al ili defendi ilin kontraŭ la atakoj de la vilaĝanoj. Kaj ĉiam, kiam la vetero estas varmega, ili sidas sub la arboj vespere kaj ĝuas la freŝecon. Tamen ili havas nur duonan profiton el ili, ĉar la vilaĝanoj malpermesas planti ian arbon en la vilaĝo, kaj tial la arbanoj devas ĉiufoje marŝi malproksimen kaj aparte viziti siajn arbojn, anstataŭ havi ilin apud siaj pordoj. But Namezo and his friends had by this time two or three big trees, and up to this day they have succeeded in defending them against the villagers' attacks. And always, when the weather is very hot, they sit under their trees in the evening and enjoy the coolness. Yet have they only half profit by them, for the villagers forbid them to plant any tree in the village, and so the tree people have to walk a long way each time and have to make special visits to their trees, instead of having them at their doors. Kaj la plej granda parto de la vilaĝanoj, malgraŭ ke oni povas facile piediri al la arboj, diras ankoraŭ, "Arbo estas neebla." And the greater part of the villagers, though the trees are within a walk, still say, "Trees are impossible." Kaj la diablo ridas. And the devil laughs.1. There is one definite article, la, invariable. There is no indefinite article.
2. Nouns always end in -o. Ex. patro = father.
3. Adjectives always end in -a. Ex. patra = paternal.
4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except only the personal pronouns) ends in j. Ex. patroj = fathers; bonaj patroj = good fathers.
5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in -n. Ex. Mi amas mian bonan patron = I love my good father. Ni amas niajn bonajn patrojn = we love our good fathers.
6. Adverbs always end in -e. Ex. bone = well; patre = paternally. (There are a few non-derived adverbs without the ending -e, as jam, ankaŭ, tiel, kiel).
7. The personal pronouns are:
Also a reflexive pronoun, si, which always refers to the subject of its own clause.
All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding -n.
8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number.
The present ends in -as. Ex. mi amas = I love.
The past ends in -is. Ex. vi amis = you loved.
The future ends in -os. Ex. li amos = he will love.
The conditional ends in -us. Ex. ni amus = we should love.
The imperative ends in -u. Ex. amu = love! ni amu = let us love. This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu la alian = God commands us to love one another.
The infinitive ends in -i. Ex. ami = to love.
There are three active participles.
The present participle active is formed by -ant. Ex. amanta = loving; amanto = a lover.
The past participle active is formed by -int. Ex. aminta = having loved; la skribinto = the author (lit. the man who has written).
The future participle active is formed by -ont. Ex. amonta = being about to love.
There are three passive participles.
The present participle passive is formed by -at. Ex. amata = being loved.
The past participle passive is formed by -it. Ex. amita = having been loved.
The future participle passive is formed by -ot. Ex. amota = being about to be loved.
All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by the verb esti (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are employed only when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. mi estas aminta = I have loved (lit. I am having loved); vi estis aminta = you had loved (lit. you were having loved); ili estas amataj = they are loved; ŝi estas amita = she has been loved; ni estis amitaj = we had been loved; ili estos amintaj = they will have loved; ŝi estus aminta = she would have loved; mi estus amita = I should have been loved.
I. Prefixes
bo- denotes relation by marriage: bopatro = father-in-law.
dis- denotes dissemination, division: dismeti = to put apart, about, in pieces.
ek- denotes sudden action or beginning: ekdormi = to fall asleep; ekiri = to start.
ge- denotes both sexes: gepatroj = parents; geviroj = men and women.
mal- denotes the opposite: bona = good; malbona = bad.
re- denotes back, again: repagi = to repay; rekomenci = to begin again.
II. Suffixes
-ad denotes continuation: penadi = to keep striving, to make continued effort.
-aĵ denotes something concrete, made of the material, or possessing the qualities of the root to which it is attached: bovo = ox; bovaĵo = beef; okazi = to happen; okazaĵoj = happenings, events. (For English speakers a good rule is to add "thing" or "stuff" to the English word; propra = one's own, propraĵo = own-thing, property; vidindaĵoj = see-worthy-things, notable sights. N.B.: -aĵ added to transitive verbal stems generally has a passive sense: tondi = to clip, tondaĵo = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas tondilo = clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's explanation of -aĵ, La Revuo, Vol. I., No. 8 (April), pp. 374–5.
-an denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: urbano = a town-dweller; Kristano = a Christian.
-ar denotes a collection: vortaro = a dictionary; arbaro = a forest; homaro = mankind.
-ĉj denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: paĉjo = daddy; Arĉjo = Archie.
-ebl denotes possibility: kredebla = credible.
-ec denotes abstract quality: boneco = goodness.
-eg denotes great size or intensity: grandega = enormous; varmega = intensely hot.
-ej denotes place: lernejo = a learn-place, a school.
-em denotes propensity to: lernema = studious; kredema = credulous.
-er denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: sablero = a grain of sand; fajrero = a spark.
-estr denotes a chief or leader: lernejestro = a head master.
-et denotes diminution: infaneto = a little child; varmeta = warmish.
-id denotes the young of, descendant of: bovido = a calf.
-ig denotes causation: bonigi, plibonigi = to make good, to improve; mortigi = to kill; venigi = to cause to come, to send for.
-iĝ denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: saniĝi, resaniĝi = to get well (again); paliĝi = to grow pale; troviĝi = to be found, occur.
-il denotes an instrument: razilo = a razor.
-in denotes feminine: patrino = mother; bovino = cow.
-ind denotes worthiness: laŭdinda = laudable, praiseworthy.
-ing denotes a holder: kandelingo = a candlestick; glavingo = scabbard.
-ist denotes profession or occupation; maristo = a sailor; bonfaristo = a benefactor.
-nj denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: Manjo = Polly; patrinjo (or panjo) = mamma.
-uj denotes containing or producing: inkujo = inkpot; Anglujo = England.
-ul denotes characteristic: timulo = a coward: avarulo = a miser.
[The suffix -aĉ (not in the Fundamento) is coming into use as a pejorative (= Italian -accio): ridi = to laugh; ridaĉi = to grin, sneer.]
Interrogative. Negative. Universal. Indefinite. Person* tiu
that kiu
who, which neniu
no one ĉiu
every, all,
every one iu
some,
some one Thing* tio
that (thing) kio
what, which nenio
nothing ĉio
everything io
something Quality tia
that kind of a kia
what kind of a nenia
no,
no kind of ĉia
each,
every kind of ia
any,
some kind of Time tiam
then kiam
when neniam
never ĉiam
always iam
ever,
at some time Place tie
there kie
where nenie
nowhere ĉie
everywhere ie
somewhere Manner tiel
thus, so kiel
how neniel
in no way ĉiel
in every way iel
in some way,
somehow Motive tial
therefore kial
why nenial
for no reason ĉial
for all reasons ial
for some reason Quantity tiom
so/as much
so/as many kiom
how much
how many neniom
none ĉiom
the whole
amount iom
somewhat,
a certain amount Possession ties
of that kies
whose,
of which nenies
nobody's ĉies
everybody's ies
somebody's
In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," add ĉi.
*N.B.—Tiu, kiu, etc., are used in agreement with a noun expressed, even when it does not represent a person.
Ex. Tiu libro, kiun mi legis = that book which I read. Tiuj ĉi floroj = these flowers.
Tio, kio, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they stand alone.
Ex. Tio estas vera = that is true; kion vi diris? = what did you say? Tio ĉi estas pli granda ol tio = this is bigger than that.
N.B.—In memorizing the above, it is well to remember that t = demonstrative, k = relative-interrogative, ĉ = distributive, i = indefinite, nen = negative.
A
-a, termination of adjectives.
aĉet‑i, to buy.
-ad, suffix denoting continued action.
aer‑o, air.
ag‑i, to act.
-aĵ, suffix denoting concrete substance.
ajn, (what)ever; kiu ajn, whoever.
al, to.
ali‑a, other.
almenaŭ, at least.
alt‑a, high.
am‑i, to love.
amas‑o, crowd, mass.
ankaŭ, also.
ankoraŭ, still.
anstataŭ, instead of.
-ant, present participle active.
antaŭ, before (time and place).
apart‑a, special.
apud, at.
-ar, suffix denoting a collection.
arb‑o, tree.
-as, ending of present tense.
aŭd‑i, to hear.
B
baldaŭ, soon.
bed‑o, flower bed.
bel‑a, fine, beautiful.
bezon‑o, need.
blank‑a, white.
bon‑a, good.
bord‑o, edge, shore.
bril‑i, to shine.
burĝon‑o, bud.
C
cel‑o, object, aim.
cerb‑o, brain.
cert‑a, certain.
Ĉ
ĉagren‑o, trouble.
ĉar, for, because.
ĉe, at.
ĉes‑i, to cease.
ĉi, added to demonstrative tiu, expresses nearer connexion: tiu = that; tiu ĉi = this.
ĉiam, always.
ĉie, everywhere.
ĉirkaŭ, around.
ĉiu, all, each, every.
ĉu, interrogative particle.
D
da, used after words of quantity: Ex. multe da vino, much wine.
daŭr‑i, to last, continue.
de, of, from, by (with passive).
des, comparative particle; ju...des, the...the: Ex. ju pli des pli bone, the more the better.
dev‑i, to owe, to be obliged to.
deviz‑o, device, motto.
difekt‑i, to spoil.
dir‑i, to say.
dom‑o, house.
don‑i, to give.
du, two.
dub‑i, to doubt.
dum, whilst.
E
-e, ending of adverbs.
eben‑a, flat, level.
-ebl, suffix denoting possibility.
-ec, suffix denoting abstract quality: bon‑ec‑o, goodness.
eĉ, even.
edz-(in)-o, husband (wife).
-eg, suffix denoting great size.
-ej, suffix denoting place.
ek-, prefix denoting beginning.
ekster, outside.
el, out of.
-em, suffix denoting propensity.
en, in.
entrepren‑i, to undertake.
enu‑i, to weary, bore.
esper‑i, to hope.
Esperant‑o, Esperanto.
est‑i, to be.
-et, suffix denoting little.
etend‑i, to stretch.
F
facil‑a, easy.
fajr‑o, fire.
fakt‑o, fact.
far‑i, to do.
fenestr‑o, window.
ferm‑i, to shut.
fil‑o, son.
fin‑o, end.
flank‑o, side.
fleg‑i, tend.
flu‑i, flow.
flug‑i, to fly.
foj‑o, time; du fojoj, twice.
foli‑o, leaf.
for, away.
forn‑o, oven.
frat‑o, brother.
fraz‑o, sentence.
frenez‑o, madness.
fru‑a, early.
frukt‑o, fruit.
G
ge-, prefix denoting both sexes.
gent‑o, race, tribe.
grand‑a, big, great.
Ĝ
ĝi, it.
ĝis, until.
ĝoj‑o, joy.
ĝu‑i, to enjoy.
H
hav‑i, to have.
hejm‑o, home.
hodiaŭ, to‑day.
hom‑o, man (mortal; no distinction of sex).
I
-i, ending of infinitive.
ideal‑o, ideal.
-ig, suffix denoting causation.
-iĝ, suffix denoting becoming.
-il, suffix denoting instrument.
ili, they.
-int, past participle active.
inter, between, among.
ir‑i, to go.
-is, ending of past tense.
-ist, suffix denoting agent.
iu, some one.
J
-j, ending of plural.
jam, already.
jar‑o, year.
jen, here is, here are (French voici).
ju, comparative particle. See des.
jun‑a, young.
Ĵ
ĵus, just now.
K
kaj, and.
kamen‑o, fireplace.
kamp‑o, field.
kap‑o, head.
ke, that (conjunction).
kelk‑a, some.
kiam, when.
kiel, how, as.
kiu, who, which.
knab‑o, boy.
komerc‑o, commerce.
kompat‑o, sympathy, pity.
kompren‑i, to understand.
kon‑i, to know.
konsil‑i, to counsel.
konstru‑i, to build.
kontraŭ, against.
kred‑i, to believe.
kresk‑i, to grow.
krom, besides.
krut‑a, steep.
kun, with.
kuŝ-i, to lie.
kutim‑i, to be accustomed.
kvankam, although.
kvar, four.
kvazaŭ, as if.
kvin, five.
L
la, the.
lac‑a, tired.
lag‑o, lake.
land‑o,
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