History of Education, Levi Seeley [short novels in english txt] π
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The Schools.βThe schools of the United States may be classified as follows: 1, the elementary school having an eight years' course which should be completed at fourteen; 2, the secondary school with a four years' course that fits for college or its equivalent training; 3, the undergraduate school or college with its four years' course; and the graduate school or university. The elementary school is generally separated into primary and grammar grades, and is sometimes preceded by the kindergarten. The secondary school usually offers commercial or other practical courses to those who do not wish to prepare for college. Colleges differ greatly in the scope of their work and in their courses of instruction. Most universities open their doors to those who are not graduates of colleges. In all states the elementary and the high schools are free, while in some, particularly the western states, the entire expense of the child's education from kindergarten to university is defrayed at public expense.
Support of the Schools.βThe annual cost of the schools of the country is about two hundred and fifty million dollars. About two thirds of this is raised by local tax, about one fifth by state tax, and the balance is derived chiefly from permanent funds, etc. The preponderance of the local tax shows that to each community is intrusted the important matter of deciding as to the quality of school it will maintain. The American people have always been liberal toward education, and no money is voted so freely by legislative bodies as that necessary for the education of the young.
The Teachers.βThere are over 440,000 teachers in the United States, of whom about 28 per cent are men and 72 per cent women. Only about 10 per cent of these have had a professional training. The average term of service is five years, and about 100,000 new teachers are needed every year. To supply this number the normal schools and other institutions for training teachers are utterly inadequate, and will remain so until the average term of service is lengthened.
The principal institutions for training teachers are the normal school, the city training school, the pedagogical departments of universities, and teachers' training classes. To these may be added the teachers' institute and the summer school, which while they stimulate and instruct the teachers, cannot be said to give them a professional training.
The course of the normal school usually covers three years, and embraces both the theory of education and practice in teaching children. Within the last few years, many colleges have established chairs of pedagogy, but the work remains inadequate for a professional training so long as practice in teaching is not added to the requirements.
Teachers are appointed by local boards generally for one year, though they often remain undisturbed year after year. The average monthly salary of men in 1902 was $49.05, and of women $39.77.
So long as professional training of the teacher guarantees neither permanence of position nor adequate remuneration, many men and women with ability to teach will be tempted to devote their energies to other work, leaving the nation's most sacred trust, the education of its children, to those who will not or cannot properly prepare themselves for that great responsibility.
But there is in present tendencies no need for discouragement. Everywhere brave men and women are preparing themselves in earnest for the high calling of teacher, hopeful that the future will bring them the recognition they deserve.
With free schools, abler teachers, consecrated to their calling, and better courses of instruction; with a people generous in expenditures for educational purposes, a coΓΆperation of parents and teachers, and a willingness to learn from other nations; with the many educational periodicals, the pedagogical books, and teachers' institutes to broaden and stimulate the teacher,βthe friends of education in America may labor on, assured that the present century will give abundant fruitage to the work which has so marvelously prospered in the past.
FOOTNOTES:[181] In 1836 there was a large surplus in the national treasury, which, by act of Congress, was ordered "to be deposited with the several states, in proportion to their representation in Congress." The amount so distributed equaled about $30,000,000. Most of the states receiving this deposit set it aside as a permanent school fund. See Boone, "History of Education in the United States," p. 91.
[182] See an article by M. Stevens on "The National Bureau of Education," in the New York School Journal, Vol. LVI, p. 743, for a full description of this bureau and its work.
Literature.βProceedings of the National Educational Society; Reports of the Commissioner of Education; Yearbooks of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education; Parker Memorial Number of the New York School Journal, April 5, 1902.
In order to bring the history of education down to the present and awaken an interest in questions that are now occupying the attention of educational thinkers, a brief study of recent educational movements, theories, and organizations is here presented. Such study should serve as an introduction of the young teacher to the actual world of thought, in which he is to live, and present to him the questions which he must aid in solving.
The National Educational Association.βOne of the most potent factors of education in the United States is the National Educational Association, founded in Philadelphia in 1857. The purpose of this organization, in the language of the preamble to its constitution, is, "To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States." It holds its meetings annually in different parts of the country, attracting large numbers of teachers of all ranks and from every section.[183] There are eighteen departments, each of which holds special sessions during the time of the general meeting, which occurs early in the summer vacation. The department of superintendence, however, holds a midwinter meeting which attracts the leading educators of the country.
Very valuable service has been rendered by the Association through its committees that have been appointed from time to time to investigate and report upon special problems. Among the notable reports may be mentioned the following: Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools; Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools; Report of the Committee on Normal Schools; Report of the Committee on Rural Schools.
The discussions of the Association are preserved in an annual volume of proceedings. Its committee reports often appear also in special bulletins. It must be admitted in general that the National Educational Association fulfils its mission, as outlined in the preamble quoted, in an admirable way.
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION
While the United States has no national system of education, each state having entire charge of its own educational affairs, there is a national bureau whose office is twofold; namely: (1) to collect statistics, and (2) to diffuse information concerning educational affairs. This bureau was established by Congress in 1867, and since 1869 it has been a bureau of the Department of the Interior. Henry Barnard was appointed the first commissioner, and he has been succeeded in that office by John Eaton, N. H. R. Dawson, William T. Harris, and Elmer E. Brown, the present incumbent.
This bureau fosters the interests of education in three important directions: (1) by its publications; (2) by its maintenance of a pedagogical library, the most extensive in the country; and (3) by its pedagogical museum, in which every feature of educational enterprise is exhibited.
The most valuable service rendered, however, is through its publications. It issues an annual report which has grown to two large volumes of more than twenty-four hundred pages, in which are found statistics concerning all kinds of schools and educational enterprises throughout the United States. Nor are its investigations limited to our own country and its territories. Educational movements in other countries are described from time to time by experts with a view to furnish complete information concerning current educational history throughout the world. These reports are recognized as by far the best furnished by any country.
In addition to the annual report the bureau issues many pamphlets bearing upon special topics and furnishing valuable information.
In view of the fact that such vast interests are involved,βthe instruction of over twenty million pupils, requiring the service of more than half a million teachers, involving the expenditure of nearly three hundred million dollars per annum, and of vital interest to the whole population,βmany educators believe that the bureau should be elevated to the dignity of a department of the government with a cabinet officer at its head.
THE QUINCY MOVEMENT
In 1873 the School Board of Quincy, Massachusetts, took a new and very important departure, namely, that of calling an educational expert to take charge of their schools. They realized that the office of a school board is to administer the external matters, but trained experts should have entire direction of the internal affairs of the schools, such as discipline, methods of instruction, course of study, etc. They called Colonel Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) to the superintendency and said to him practically: "We will furnish the equipment and the teachers, and it is your business to run the schools. We will not interfere with your methods or your plans, but will hold you responsible for results." Colonel Parker, who had just returned from a careful study of European schools, accepted this responsibility and at once began reforms in primary education not second in importance to those of Horace Mann a generation earlier. The "New Education" and "Quincy Methods" began to be discussed everywhere, and Quincy became the educational Mecca for teachers from every part of the land. Some of the reforms inaugurated were the following: Text-books were abolished, the learning of the alphabet discontinued, mere memorizing of facts discountenanced, nature work was emphasized, concrete methods employed, and all school work made natural and interesting. The results in comparison with those of other schools were phenomenal, and it was recognized that a great reform movement had been started.
Doubtless, like reformers generally, Colonel Parker was too extreme. Some of his innovations were later modified, even by the originator himself. Nevertheless, the Quincy Movement did incalculable good by breaking up the formalism that prevailed, by making the work practical and interesting, by offering suitable material, by improving the methods of instruction, and by awakening great interest in educational problems among both the teachers and the public at large. For this great work at Quincy, for his many years' service as the head of the Chicago Normal School, and for his stimulating influence upon elementary education throughout the country, Colonel Parker deserves a place among the foremost educators of recent times. The example of the Quincy School Board in placing an educational expert over their schools has been followed by many cities. The office of city superintendent has been created, and to him is now committed duties that formerly were undertaken by members of the School Board who were without professional training. This change marks a decided step forward in the educational progress of our country.
THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT
One of the most important educational movements of recent years, is that inaugurated by the disciples of Herbart[184] in this country. At the meeting of the New England Association in Denver in 1895 a number of men, most of whom had studied under Stoy and Rein in Germany, formed the National Herbart Society, whose purpose was declared to be "the aggressive discussion and spread of educational doctrines."
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